Urban growth concentrates people, while urban decline leaves places abandoned.
★ Must-know
The world population was just over 1 billion at the start of the nineteenth century and reached 2.2 billion by 1938, a 123% increase.
The world population reached 2.5 billion by 1950 and more than doubled to 6.5 billion by 2005.
Further detail
Death rates fall first, birth rates fall later, and growth eventually slows or declines.
Internal migration occurs within one country, whereas international migration involves movement from one country to another.
Voluntary migration is chosen, often for work or education, whereas involuntary migration is forced by war, persecution, natural disasters, or other external pressures.
An immigrant moves into a country, whereas an emigrant moves out of a country.
Immigrants enter a country, whereas emigrants leave one.
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📌 Migration from Nepal can improve living standards and reduce poverty through remittances, but the departure of skilled workers can slow development and create emotional stress for families.
Further detail
The main destinations are:
The migration of working-age men from Nepal creates a gender imbalance, reduces the local labour force, leaves fewer people available for farming, and often increases women's responsibilities at home.
Overseas migration brings remittances, but can also cause family separation and local labour shortages.
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Further detail
A wide-based pyramid signals growth, whereas an inverted pyramid signals decline.
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🔄 The first four stages typically progress through:
A country moves from stage 2 to stage 3 of the demographic transition model when development, education, urbanisation and access to contraception cause families to choose fewer children, so birth rates fall while death rates remain low and natural increase slows.
📌 Improvements in medical care, trained midwives, hygiene, food supply and nutrition can move a country from stage 1 to stage 2 because more babies and children survive.
Further detail
📌 The demographic transition model is criticised because it is based primarily on European countries and many countries do not fit its stages neatly.
Countries identified as generally following the model include:
Countries identified as not completely following the model include:
The model progresses from high birth and death rates through falling death rates to low birth and death rates.
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📌 Developing countries often experience faster urban growth because they have higher birth rates and larger rural populations while cities concentrate jobs and services.
Further detail
Jobs and services attract migrants → cities grow rapidly and face infrastructure pressure
★ Must-know
📌 Population distribution describes where people live across an area, while population density measures the number of people per unit area, usually per square kilometre.
📐 Formula — Population density is calculated as population divided by area: .
Megacities are concentrated especially in South and East Asia, with others in Africa, Europe and the Americas, and are usually near coasts, rivers and major economic regions.
Densely populated countries are concentrated in South and East Asia and parts of Europe, while sparsely populated countries are commonly found in deserts, cold regions, mountainous areas and remote interiors.
The fastest urban growth is expected in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South and South-East Asia because of high birth rates, rural-urban migration and developing economies.
India is a densely populated, newly industrialised country in South Asia, with population concentrated in the Ganges plain, river valleys, coasts and major cities such as Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata.
Australia is sparsely populated because its interior is dry, hot and difficult to access, with limited water, poor soils, long distances and fewer jobs and services, while most people live along the eastern, south-eastern and south-western coasts.
Further detail
The most densely populated countries are concentrated mainly in South and East Asia and parts of Europe.
Sparsely populated countries include Australia, Mongolia, Namibia, Canada and Russia, often because of deserts, cold regions or difficult terrain.
The fastest-growing urban populations are expected mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South and South-East Asia because high birth rates create natural increase and rural residents are attracted by jobs, education and healthcare.
Megacities are concentrated especially in Asia but also occur in Africa, Europe and the Americas, often near coasts and major transport routes.
India's management measures include:
Density asks how many; distribution asks where
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India has over 1.4 billion people living across mountains, plains, deserts and coastlines and is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.
India’s transition from an agricultural economy to an economy driven by industry and services has encouraged millions of people to move from rural areas to urban centres in search of jobs and better living standards.
Australia is sparsely populated because much of its interior is arid or semi-arid, with little water, extreme temperatures and poor soils.
Most Australians live in a narrow coastal zone where rainfall, jobs, transport and services are concentrated.
Further detail
Cities such as Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata have extremely high population densities, creating pressure on housing, infrastructure and resources.
Challenges of densely populated countries include:
India concentrates people in dense urban and fertile regions, whereas Australia concentrates people along the coast
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Further detail
📌 Urban homes are generally closer together and use more apartments and townhouses, while rural homes are usually more spread out on larger blocks.
Big box stores are very large retail stores, often located on cheaper edge-of-city sites, that can attract customers away from small local shops and increase car dependence.
Industrial land supports manufacturing, storage and distribution, but can create air and water pollution, noise, traffic, waste and contaminated land.
Institutional land includes schools, hospitals, libraries, government buildings and places of worship, which are distributed through communities so residents can access essential services.
RCI-T-R: residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, transport, recreational
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A lack of public transport combined with population growth in Western Sydney could increase congestion, car dependence, pollution and pressure on infrastructure across Greater Sydney.
Barangaroo was transformed from a former container terminal into a commercial hub, parklands and cultural precinct.
Further detail
Established train lines can influence settlement patterns by improving accessibility and encouraging development near stations and transport corridors.
Some Millers Point residents protested the government’s decision because the Barangaroo redevelopment was linked to the removal of public housing and could displace the community.
Redevelopment and transport investment can improve cities while creating displacement and inequality
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📌 Push factors drive people away from rural areas, whereas pull factors attract people to cities.
Lagos has grown through rural-urban migration and natural increase as migrants seek jobs and better living conditions and then raise families in the city.
Rapid urban growth in Lagos creates: overcrowding, informal housing, pressure on water, sanitation, electricity, jobs and waste management, traffic, air pollution
Further detail
Lagos is Western Africa’s economic hub but faces traffic congestion, air pollution and informal settlements without proper sanitation.
Development on wetlands and inadequate drainage worsen flooding in Lagos, while air and water pollution damage the environment.
Rural-urban migration and natural increase → rapid growth → pressure on housing, services and the environment
★ Must-know
Lagos contains about 10% of Nigeria’s population but contributes about 30% of the country’s gross domestic product and almost 80% of its manufacturing.
Eko Atlantic is a privately funded reclaimed-coast city intended to become the financial hub of West Africa, with capacity for 250,000 residents and 150,000 additional commuters.
The Makoko Floating School prototype was built in 2014, held 60 children at a time and also functioned as a community centre.
LAMATA’s Lagos State Strategic Transport Master Plan aims to create an integrated system linking roads, railways and waterways.
Further detail
Eko Atlantic requires sea defences against ocean surges and rising sea levels, although critics link the project to flooding in Lagos itself.
The Lagos transport strategy includes:
Eko Atlantic, Makoko Floating School, LAMATA
Inclusive and sustainable urban planning can: protect green space and water, provide affordable accessible housing, use reliable public transport and mixed-use planning
Urban planning can incorporate Indigenous perspectives through:
Conventional planning focuses on infrastructure, whereas Caring for Country integrates people, culture and nature
★ Must-know
China introduced the One Child Policy in 1980 to reduce population growth by lowering birth rates and limiting most families to one child.
Reported enforcement methods included:
The replacement rate is about children per woman in a low-mortality population, and fertility below this level eventually leads to population ageing and decline.
The One Child Policy created a 4-2-1 family structure in which one child could eventually support two parents and four grandparents.
Further detail
The Later, Longer, Fewer campaign promoted:
Recent attempts to encourage more births have largely failed because housing, education and childcare costs, demanding work, delayed marriage and the policy’s long-term effects discourage couples from having more children.
Later, Longer, Fewer → One Child Policy → ageing and population decline
★ Must-know
📌 Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas, urbanisation is the increasing share of the population living in urban areas, and urban sprawl is the outward expansion of built-up land.
📌 In the Australian urban issue model, high house prices can result from limited supply, demand, investment and transport access, with consequences including overcrowding, homelessness and long commutes.
Further detail
Urban growth is often faster in developing countries because birth rates and rural populations are larger and urban infrastructure is expanding from a lower base.
Key management strategies include:
Rural migration and natural increase → rapid urban growth → pressure on housing, transport, services and the environment
★ Must-know
📌 A population boom without public transport would increase car dependence, congestion, travel times, emissions and inequality.
Further detail
Residential areas contain houses, apartments and townhouses; commercial areas contain shops, offices, restaurants and services; industrial areas support manufacturing, warehousing and distribution but can create pollution and traffic.
In Wahroonga, low-density leafy housing is concentrated around local roads, while shops and services cluster near the railway station and main roads.
The SWOT categories identify:
Barangaroo was originally a working waterfront including wharves and a container terminal, which closed because larger shipping operations and container ships made the site unsuitable for modern port logistics.
The redeveloped precinct includes:
Millers Point residents protested because redevelopment and the sale of public housing threatened community networks, affordability and the right to remain in a historic neighbourhood.
Lagos has grown rapidly through rural-urban migration and natural increase, driven by rural push factors and urban pull factors.
The main push and pull factors are:
Makoko has closely packed informal buildings, often made from timber or corrugated materials, and relies on waterways and boats while roads, drainage, sanitation, electricity and secure tenure may be limited.
Makoko faces flooding, unsafe water, disease, fire, overcrowding, insecure housing and limited services, while Lagos also has opportunities in manufacturing, finance, trade, services, transport and large markets.
Planning can include:
Australian cities are Indigenous places because they were established on Country with deep Aboriginal histories, continuing custodianship, languages, stories, sites and communities.
🔄 The planning proposal should proceed by: engaging Traditional Owners early and continuously, mapping cultural and ecological values, protecting significant places and waterways, using Indigenous names and stories with permission, including Indigenous design and procurement, setting measurable targets, monitoring outcomes with Traditional Owners
China introduced the One Child Policy in 1980 to reduce population growth after the Later, Longer, Fewer campaign promoting later marriage, longer gaps between births and fewer children.
Enforcement included: fines, loss of benefits or employment, birth-permit controls, reports of coercive sterilisation and abortions
Replacement fertility is approximately 2.1 children per woman in a low-mortality population, and below-replacement fertility eventually produces ageing and population decline.
Barangaroo brings redevelopment, jobs and public space, whereas Millers Point highlights displacement and loss of affordability
| Category | Meaning | Example or cause |
|---|---|---|
| Internal migration | Movement within one country | Rural to urban movement |
| International migration | Movement between countries | Moving to another country |
| Voluntary migration | Chosen movement | Work or education |
| Involuntary migration | Forced movement | War, persecution, or disasters |
| Aspect | Population distribution | Population density |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Where people live across an area | Number of people per unit area |
| Data type | Qualitative | Quantitative |
| Key question | Where are people? | How many people per km²? |
| Expression | Words such as even, uneven or clustered | Numbers such as people per km² |
Test your knowledge on Changing Places Case Studies with 11 multiple-choice questions with detailed corrections.
1. Which description best defines development in relation to a place?
2. What is the term for the process that creates growth, progress, or positive change in the physical, economic, environmental, social, and demographic aspects of a place?
Memorize the key concepts of Changing Places Case Studies with 12 interactive flashcards.
What is development in terms of place change?
A process creating growth or positive change in a place's situation.
Development Concept
Creates growth and positive change
What does urbanisation describe about a country's population?
An increased proportion living in towns or cities.
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