Hoja de repaso: Ressources et enjeux des espaces maritimes

📋 Plan du Cours

1. Ressources halieutiques, aquacoles et énergétiques des mers et océans
2. Tourisme maritime et activités de loisirs en milieu marin
3. Rôle des espaces maritimes dans les échanges mondiaux et routes commerciales
4. Évolutions, innovations et risques dans le transport maritime global
5. Cadre juridique international et zonage des espaces maritimes
6. Multiplication des acteurs et gouvernance régionale des océans
7. Conflits et rivalités géopolitiques autour des zones maritimes
8. Impacts environnementaux et menaces sur les écosystèmes marins
9. Gestion durable de la pêche entre surpêche et aquaculture
10. Politiques de protection marine et rôle des aires marines protégées
11. Exploitation des ressources marines et enjeux stratégiques globaux
12. Maritimisation de l’économie et enjeux géopolitiques des espaces maritimes

📖 1. Ressources halieutiques, aquacoles et énergétiques des mers et océans

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Aquaculture : La production contrôlée ou semi-contrôlée de poissons, crustacés, mollusques et algues marines, qui contribue à la croissance de la production animale et végétale marine avec plus de 28 millions de tonnes produites annuellement.
• Seas and oceans : Les étendues d'eau salée couvrant 71% de la surface terrestre, contenant un volume de 1 320 millions de km3, constituant la plus grande réserve et masse biologique mondiale.

📝 Points essentiels

• L'aquaculture produit plus de 28 millions de tonnes par an, contribuant à la croissance de la production animale et végétale marine.
• La pêche maritime mondiale atteint environ 80 millions de tonnes par an, avec la Chine comme premier producteur et exportateur.

💡 À retenir

Les mers et océans constituent une ressource stratégique majeure pour l’alimentation, l’énergie et les matériaux, tout en étant au centre des enjeux géopolitiques et environnementaux liés à la mondialisation.

📖 2. Tourisme maritime et activités de loisirs en milieu marin

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Resources maritimes : ressources naturelles exploitables en mer ou dans ses fonds, telles que le poisson, les hydrocarbures, le sable, les minéraux ou l’eau de mer.

• Resources stratégiques maritimes hydrocarbures : ressources énergétiques présentes en mer, principalement le pétrole et le gaz, qui constituent la part la plus importante des ressources énergétiques marines.

• Resources maritimes hydrocarbures : ressources énergétiques marines comprenant principalement le pétrole et le gaz, dont la majorité est extraite en offshore, représentant une part significative de la production mondiale.

• Maritime stratégique : espace maritime considéré comme crucial pour la sécurité, l’exploitation économique et la géopolitique, notamment en raison de la concentration de ressources et de routes commerciales.

• Million de tonnes : unité de mesure utilisée pour quantifier la quantité de ressources, notamment la pêche, avec environ 80 millions de tonnes de poissons capturés chaque année en mer.

📝 Points essentiels

• La mer des Caraïbes est la principale zone de croisière maritime, suivie par la Méditerranée, qui accueille un nombre important de touristes en quête de loisirs nautiques. Les grandes firmes transnationales dominent le marché des croisières, exploitant ces espaces pour leur rentabilité. Cependant, cette activité est fortement critiquée pour son impact écologique, notamment la pollution et la dégradation des écosystèmes marins.

• Le développement des marinas, comme celle de Dubaï, accompagne la croissance des activités nautiques de plaisance. La marina de Dubaï, la plus grande au monde, peut accueillir 4 400 yachts et 6 000 passagers, illustrant l’ampleur de cette industrie. Par ailleurs, les sports nautiques tels que la plongée, la planche à voile ou la baignade attirent aussi bien les touristes que les locaux. Des sites renommés comme Hawaï sont particulièrement prisés pour ces activités, contribuant à l’attractivité touristique de ces régions.

💡 À retenir

L’essor du tourisme maritime, notamment par la croisière et les activités nautiques, génère des bénéfices économiques importants mais pose également des enjeux environnementaux majeurs, notamment en termes de pollution et de dégradation des milieux marins. La croissance de ces activités modifie durablement les littoraux et leur utilisation.

📖 3. Rôle des espaces maritimes dans les échanges mondiaux et routes commerciales

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Routes maritimes commerciales : voies navigables qui relient entre eux les principales zones de production et de consommation mondiales, permettant le transit de la majorité des biens échangés par voie maritime. Ces routes suivent des tracés précis, balisés et surveillés pour assurer la sécurité et la fluidité des échanges.

• Points de passage stratégiques : détroits, canaux ou passages obligés situés sur les routes maritimes principales, dont la maîtrise est essentielle pour le contrôle des flux commerciaux et géopolitiques. Parmi eux figurent Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Gibraltar, Hormuz, Suez, Panama et la Manche.

• Câbles sous-marins de télécommunications : câbles de fibre optique posés sur le fond océanique, qui transportent environ 90% des flux de télécommunications et d’Internet mondiaux. Ils constituent un réseau immatériel vital pour la communication globale.

📝 Points essentiels

• Environ 90% des biens de consommation dans le monde transitent par voie maritime, soulignant l’importance cruciale des routes maritimes commerciales dans l’économie mondiale. Ces routes principales relient les grands pôles de production, comme l’Asie ou l’Amérique, aux zones de consommation, telles que l’Europe ou l’Amérique du Nord, assurant la circulation des marchandises à l’échelle planétaire.

• Les passages stratégiques, tels que le détroit de Malacca ou le canal de Suez, jouent un rôle clé dans la sécurisation et la gestion des flux. Leur contrôle est souvent source de tensions géopolitiques, car ils concentrent une part importante du trafic mondial.

• Par ailleurs, la majorité des échanges numériques mondiaux repose sur des câbles sous-marins, qui acheminent 90% des flux de télécommunications et d’Internet. Ces infrastructures invisibles mais essentielles garantissent la connectivité mondiale, facilitant la circulation des données à une vitesse quasi instantanée.

💡 À retenir

Les espaces maritimes constituent à la fois des vecteurs physiques et immatériels des échanges mondiaux, en reliant efficacement les zones de production, de consommation et de communication. Leur maîtrise et leur sécurisation sont essentielles pour le fonctionnement de l’économie et de la société globales.

📖 4. Évolutions, innovations et risques dans le transport maritime global

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Maritime transport : Mode of transportation involving the movement of goods and passengers by sea using various types of ships adapted to different cargoes.

📝 Points essentiels

• Les grandes compagnies transnationales comme MAERSK et CMA CGM dominent le secteur du transport maritime.
• Les ports asiatiques, notamment chinois (Shanghai, Singapour, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Hong Kong), sont les plus importants au monde.
• Asian ports – and Chinese ones in particular – dominate today: Shanghai, Singapore, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Hong Kong.

💡 À retenir

Les transformations techniques et économiques du transport maritime, notamment la conteneurisation et la domination des grandes compagnies, s'inscrivent dans un contexte de défis environnementaux et géopolitiques, tels que l'ouverture limitée de nouvelles routes arctiques et la nécessité de réduire les risques liés aux accidents et aux émissions polluantes.

📖 5. Cadre juridique international et zonage des espaces maritimes

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Container ships : Navires conçus pour transporter des conteneurs standardisés, dont la capacité dépasse actuellement 20 000 TEUs, permettant une exploitation efficace des flux commerciaux maritimes.

• Largest container ships exceed : Les plus grands navires de transport de conteneurs dépassent 20 000 TEUs, illustrant la tendance à la gigantisation dans le secteur maritime, facilitant le transport massif de marchandises.

📝 Points essentiels

• La Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (UNCLOS), adoptée en 1982 à Montego Bay, établit un système de zonage des espaces maritimes. Elle définit notamment la Zone Économique Exclusive (ZEE), qui permet à l’État côtier d’exercer des droits exclusifs d’exploitation des ressources jusqu’à 200 milles nautiques de ses côtes. Au-delà de cette limite, s’étend la haute mer, couvrant 64 % de la surface des océans, où la navigation, la pêche et la pose de câbles sont libres pour tous les États. La convention prévoit également la possibilité d’étendre la ZEE jusqu’à 350 milles nautiques sur le plateau continental, sous réserve de conditions précises. La gestion de ces espaces est essentielle pour la souveraineté et l’exploitation des ressources maritimes, notamment en matière de pêche, de minéraux ou de biodiversité.

💡 À retenir

Le cadre juridique international, notamment la UNCLOS, organise la souveraineté et les droits d’exploitation des espaces maritimes en délimitant des zones spécifiques, telles que la ZEE, tout en protégeant la liberté de navigation sur la haute mer.

📖 6. Multiplication des acteurs et gouvernance régionale des océans

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

📝 Points essentiels

• Les zones maritimes, notamment les zones économiques exclusives (ZEE), regroupent plusieurs États autour d’une même région pour gérer durablement les ressources halieutiques. Ces zones permettent une gestion collective et concertée des ressources, évitant la surexploitation.

• La gouvernance des océans s’exerce à plusieurs échelles : nationale, régionale et internationale. Elle implique une pluralité d’acteurs, notamment des États, des organisations intergouvernementales comme la FAO, et des acteurs privés. La multiplication de ces acteurs reflète la complexité des enjeux liés à l’exploitation et à la protection des espaces maritimes.

• Les organisations intergouvernementales, telles que la FAO, jouent un rôle clé en édictant des règles concernant les techniques de pêche et la protection marine. Par exemple, la FAO établit des réglementations pour encadrer la pêche afin d’assurer la durabilité des ressources.

• L’émergence des aires marines protégées (AMP ou MPAs) témoigne de cette volonté de conservation. Ces zones peuvent être entièrement ou partiellement protégées, avec une réglementation spécifique sur leur utilisation, afin de préserver la biodiversité marine face aux pressions humaines.

• La multiplication des acteurs et la diversité des réglementations illustrent la complexité de la gouvernance maritime, où chaque acteur intervient selon ses intérêts et ses compétences, dans un contexte de tensions et de défis environnementaux.

💡 À retenir

La gestion des océans repose sur une pluralité d’acteurs à différentes échelles, ce qui complexifie la gouvernance mais est essentiel pour répondre aux enjeux liés à l’exploitation durable et à la protection des espaces maritimes.

📖 7. Conflits et rivalités géopolitiques autour des zones maritimes

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Délimitation des ZEE : zone maritime qui s’étend jusqu’à 200 milles nautiques à partir du littoral d’un État, dans laquelle ce dernier exerce des droits exclusifs d’exploitation des ressources, conformément à la Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (UNCLOS). La délimitation de ces zones peut provoquer des tensions lorsque deux États riverains se disputent leur délimitation, notamment en cas de proximité ou de frontières maritimes ambiguës.

• Extension du plateau continental : prolongement naturel du territoire terrestre sous la mer, qui peut aller jusqu’à 350 milles nautiques ou plus, selon des critères géologiques précis. Son extension donne aux États un droit d’exploitation sur les ressources situées sur ou au sous-sol du plateau continental, ce qui peut entraîner des conflits, notamment en mer de Chine méridionale, où plusieurs pays revendiquent ces espaces.

• Piraterie maritime : actes de violence ou de détournement commis en haute mer ou dans des zones maritimes sous juridiction, visant à attaquer des navires ou à s’emparer de leur cargaison. La piraterie, notamment dans le golfe d’Aden et le golfe de Guinée, représente une menace sécuritaire majeure, en perturbant la liberté de navigation et en mettant en danger la sécurité des acteurs maritimes.

📝 Points essentiels

• La proximité des côtes complique souvent l’attribution de 200 milles nautiques à chaque État, ce qui peut générer des tensions et des conflits. La délimitation des ZEE devient alors un enjeu géopolitique majeur, surtout lorsque deux États riverains se disputent la souveraineté sur un même espace maritime. Par exemple, ces différends peuvent conduire à des tensions diplomatiques ou à des confrontations directes.

• L’extension du plateau continental jusqu’à 350 milles nautiques est une source de conflits, notamment en mer de Chine méridionale, où plusieurs États revendiquent ces espaces pour exploiter leurs ressources naturelles. Ces revendications peuvent se heurter à celles d’autres pays ou à des accords internationaux, alimentant ainsi des rivalités géopolitiques.

• La piraterie maritime, particulièrement dans le golfe d’Aden et le golfe de Guinée, constitue une menace sécuritaire majeure. Elle impacte la liberté de navigation en attaquant ou en détournant des navires, ce qui oblige les États et les acteurs privés à renforcer leur sécurité maritime. Ces actes de piraterie peuvent aussi provoquer des tensions entre États, notamment lorsque des incidents se produisent dans des zones revendiquées ou sous contrôle contesté.

• Les conflits liés aux zones maritimes opposent souvent des États riverains, mais peuvent également concerner des acteurs internationaux ou des États non riverains. Ces différends affectent la liberté de navigation, essentielle pour le commerce mondial, et soulignent la nécessité de régulations internationales pour préserver la stabilité et la sécurité en mer.

💡 À retenir

Les enjeux géopolitiques et sécuritaires liés à la délimitation et à l’exploitation des espaces maritimes reflètent la compétition pour les ressources, la souveraineté et la liberté de navigation, ce qui peut conduire à des tensions ou des conflits entre États.

📖 8. Impacts environnementaux et menaces sur les écosystèmes marins

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Acidification des océans : processus par lequel le pH des eaux marines diminue en raison de l’absorption d’un quart du CO2 anthropique, ce qui modifie la composition chimique de l’eau et menace la biodiversité marine.

• Pollution plastique marine : dégradation et accumulation de déchets plastiques dans les milieux marins, résultant de l’activité humaine, qui affectent la faune et la flore, notamment par ingestion ou enchevêtrement.

• Accidents industriels maritimes : événements catastrophiques impliquant des navires ou installations en mer, tels que la marée noire de Deepwater Horizon en 2010 ou la catastrophe nucléaire de Fukushima en 2011, ayant des effets durables sur les écosystèmes marins.

📝 Points essentiels

• Les océans absorbent un quart du CO2 produit par l’activité humaine chaque jour, ce qui provoque leur acidification. Cette modification chimique menace la biodiversité, en particulier les organismes calcificateurs dont la coquille ou le squelette dépend du pH stable. La biodiversité marine est également mise en danger par la pollution plastique, qui s’accumule dans les eaux et impacte directement la faune et la flore en provoquant ingestion ou enchevêtrement.

• Les accidents industriels, comme la marée noire de Deepwater Horizon (2010) dans le Golfe du Mexique ou la catastrophe nucléaire de Fukushima (2011), ont des impacts durables. Lors de cette dernière, 80 % des substances radioactives libérées se sont répandues dans la mer, contaminant les milieux marins et affectant la biodiversité.

• Les milieux marins sont également vulnérables face aux catastrophes naturelles ou humaines, notamment en raison de leur proximité avec des zones densément peuplées. En effet, 40 % de la population mondiale vit à moins de 100 kilomètres des côtes, ce qui expose directement ces populations aux dégradations environnementales marines, telles que la pollution ou la dégradation des ressources.

💡 À retenir

Les écosystèmes marins sont particulièrement vulnérables face aux pressions humaines et aux catastrophes, ce qui met en danger la biodiversité et les populations humaines proches des côtes. La pollution, l’acidification et les accidents industriels ont des effets durables sur la santé des océans.

📖 9. Gestion durable de la pêche entre surpêche et aquaculture

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Oceans : étendues d’eau salée qui couvrent environ 71 % de la surface de la Terre, jouant un rôle central dans la régulation climatique, la biodiversité marine et l’exploitation humaine.

📝 Points essentiels

• Aujourd’hui, 31 % des stocks halieutiques mondiaux sont surexploités, ce qui signifie qu’ils sont exploités à un rythme supérieur à leur capacité de renouvellement. En comparaison, moins de 10 % de ces stocks étaient dans cette situation en 1974, illustrant une détérioration progressive des ressources halieutiques. La pêche illégale représente environ 15 % de la production totale de poissons, ce qui complique la gestion durable des ressources marines. Les conflits liés à la délimitation des zones de pêche, comme entre le Sénégal et la Mauritanie, sont fréquents, reflétant des tensions autour des limites des zones économiques exclusives (ZEE). La mise en place de labels tels que le MSC (Marine Stewardship Council) encourage des pratiques de pêche respectueuses de l’environnement, favorisant la durabilité. Par ailleurs, l’aquaculture, bien qu’elle constitue une solution partielle pour répondre à la demande croissante en produits de la mer, pose des problèmes environnementaux importants. Elle utilise massivement des antibiotiques et de la farine de poisson, ce qui peut entraîner des impacts négatifs sur les écosystèmes marins et la biodiversité.

💡 À retenir

La gestion durable des ressources marines doit concilier la nécessité de préserver les stocks halieutiques face à la surpêche et la demande croissante en produits de la mer, tout en intégrant des solutions comme l’aquaculture responsable et la lutte contre la pêche illégale. La coopération internationale et la mise en place de réglementations efficaces sont essentielles pour limiter les conflits et préserver la santé des océans.

📖 10. Politiques de protection marine et rôle des aires marines protégées

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Aires marines protégées (AMP) : espaces maritimes ou côtiers bénéficiant de mesures spécifiques visant à préserver leur biodiversité, leur écosystème ou leur usage durable, en réglementant ou en limitant certaines activités.

• Objectif de développement durable 14 (ODD 14) : composante de l'Agenda 2030 adoptée par l'ONU en 2015, qui vise la conservation et l'utilisation durable des océans, des mers et des ressources marines pour assurer leur santé à long terme.

• ONG environnementales marines : organisations non gouvernementales actives dans la protection, la sensibilisation et la gouvernance des milieux marins, telles que Greenpeace ou Sea Shepherd, qui jouent un rôle actif dans la défense des océans.

📝 Points essentiels

• Il existe plus de 11 300 AMP dans le monde, couvrant environ 3,7 % des espaces maritimes. Parmi ces zones, deux tiers sont partiellement protégées, ce qui signifie que certaines activités y sont autorisées, tandis que d’autres sont strictement réglementées ou interdites pour préserver l’écosystème.

• L’ODD 14 de l’Agenda 2030, adopté en 2015, a pour objectif la conservation et l’utilisation durable des océans. Il souligne l’importance de protéger ces espaces pour leur rôle écologique, climatique et économique.

• Les ONG telles que Greenpeace et Sea Shepherd jouent un rôle crucial dans la gouvernance marine. Elles interviennent notamment par des actions de sensibilisation, de surveillance et de plaidoyer pour la création de zones protégées. Par exemple, en avril 2019, le bateau Greenpeace Esperanza a lancé une expédition reliant le pôle Nord au pôle Sud pour sensibiliser le public et promouvoir la mise en place d’un traité international sur la création de réserves marines en haute mer.

• Les AMP ont des objectifs écologiques, visant à préserver la biodiversité et les écosystèmes, ainsi que des objectifs touristiques, en réglementant l’usage des espaces protégés pour concilier conservation et activités humaines durables.

💡 À retenir

Les aires marines protégées jouent un rôle essentiel dans la gestion durable des océans, en combinant conservation écologique et activités économiques réglementées, soutenues par des acteurs variés tels que les ONG et les politiques internationales.

📖 11. Exploitation des ressources marines et enjeux stratégiques globaux

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Illegal fishing concerns : préoccupations liées à la pêche illégale, qui représente 15 % de la production totale, mettant en danger la durabilité des stocks et la gestion des ressources marines.

• Fishing concerns 15% of total : la pêche illégale ou non réglementée constitue une part significative de la production mondiale, affectant la régulation et la conservation des ressources halieutiques.

📝 Points essentiels

• L’exploitation des ressources minérales marines, telles que les nodules polymétalliques, représente un enjeu économique et stratégique futur, en raison de leur potentiel en matériaux rares. La maîtrise des espaces maritimes, régie par des conventions internationales, suscite néanmoins des rivalités entre États, notamment pour l’accès aux ressources et aux zones de pêche. Les hydrocarbures offshore constituent une part importante de la production énergétique mondiale, avec des disparités régionales marquées, renforçant leur importance géostratégique. La maîtrise de ces ressources marines est ainsi un facteur clé de puissance géopolitique, influençant les rapports de force internationaux.

💡 À retenir

L’exploitation des ressources marines, notamment énergétiques et minérales, constitue un enjeu stratégique majeur, renforcé par la compétition entre États et la nécessité de préserver la durabilité face à la pollution et à la surexploitation. La maîtrise de ces espaces est un levier essentiel de puissance géopolitique dans un contexte de mondialisation.

📖 12. Maritimisation de l’économie et enjeux géopolitiques des espaces maritimes

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Fishmeal : Aliment à base de farine de poisson, utilisé dans l’aquaculture, qui contribue à l’intensification de la surpêche en augmentant la demande en ressources halieutiques.

• Ces farms : Exploitations aquacoles industrielles qui utilisent du fishmeal, ce qui accentue la pression sur les stocks de poissons sauvages, aggravant la problématique de la surpêche.

• Les zones maritimes (maritime spaces) : Espaces océaniques et côtiers, dont la gestion et la protection sont essentielles pour l’économie mondiale, notamment en raison de leur fragilité et de leur importance stratégique.

• Choke points : Passages stratégiques tels que le détroit de Malacca ou le canal de Suez, qui concentrent un flux important de commerce maritime mondial et sont des points de vulnérabilité géopolitique.

• Maritimisation : Processus de dépendance croissante de l’économie mondiale aux échanges maritimes, caractérisée par la domination des flux maritimes dans le commerce international.

• ZEE (Zone Économique Exclusive) : espace maritime s’étendant jusqu’à 200 milles nautiques des côtes, où l’État exerce des droits souverains pour l’exploitation des ressources, mais dont la proximité de certains États limite leur contrôle exclusif.

• Capacités navales : moyens militaires maritimes que certains États mobilisent pour exercer une influence géopolitique majeure, notamment en protégeant leurs intérêts et en sécurisant leurs routes maritimes.

• Routes maritimes : itinéraires empruntés par les navires pour le commerce international, dont la sécurisation est cruciale pour la stabilité économique et politique mondiale.

📝 Points essentiels

• La maritimisation désigne la dépendance croissante de l’économie mondiale aux échanges maritimes, renforcée par la domination des flux maritimes dans le commerce international. Les choke points, tels que le détroit de Malacca ou le canal de Suez, jouent un rôle stratégique en concentrant une part significative du trafic mondial, ce qui en fait des zones de vulnérabilité géopolitique.

• Les États disposant de vastes ZEE et de capacités navales importantes exercent une influence géopolitique majeure, notamment en contrôlant ou en sécurisant les routes maritimes essentielles. La sécurisation de ces routes est indispensable pour garantir la stabilité économique et politique mondiale, car leur perturbation peut entraîner des crises majeures.

• Par ailleurs, la gestion des espaces maritimes est devenue une priorité écologique et touristique. La surpêche, notamment par l’utilisation de fishmeal dans l’aquaculture industrielle, accentue la pression sur les ressources marines, nécessitant une gestion durable. La création de zones protégées (MPAs) témoigne de cette volonté de préserver ces espaces fragiles, même si leur couverture reste limitée à 3,7 % des zones maritimes mondiales.

💡 À retenir

La dépendance accrue aux espaces maritimes façonne fortement les rapports de force géopolitiques mondiaux, en renforçant l’importance stratégique des choke points, des ZEE et des capacités navales, tout en soulignant la nécessité de protéger ces espaces pour assurer la stabilité économique et écologique.

🧩 Compléments de couverture

1. Détail source à réviser : AND OCEANS 1 SEAS AND OCEANS: vectors of globalization, between appropriation, protection and freedom of movement Introduction. With 71% of the earth’s surface and a volume of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the (Source: "AND OCEANS 1 SEAS AND OCEANS: vectors of globalization, between appropriation, protection and freedom of movement Introduction. With 71% of the earth’s surface and a volume of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the largest reserve and the larges biological mass in the world. The seas and oceans provide many resources. They are also essential")
2. Détail source à réviser : of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the largest reserve and the larges biological mass in the world. The seas and oceans provide many resources. They are also essential supports of globalization exchanges: it is t (Source: "of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the largest reserve and the larges biological mass in the world. The seas and oceans provide many resources. They are also essential supports of globalization exchanges: it is the maritimization of the world economy. Globalization is therefore based on the seas and oceans.  In what way are maritime spaces")
3. Détail source à réviser : Globalization is therefore based on the seas and oceans.  In what way are maritime spaces essential, as supports for globalized exchanges? (I / II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major (Source: "Globalization is therefore based on the seas and oceans.  In what way are maritime spaces essential, as supports for globalized exchanges? (I / II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major political, economic but also environmental issues in a context of globalization. Multiple actors are trying to appropriate these")
4. Détail source à réviser : issues in a context of globalization. Multiple actors are trying to appropriate these spaces to ensure the free movement of people and goods, to exploit their resources, but also to protect them.  To what extent do the (Source: "issues in a context of globalization. Multiple actors are trying to appropriate these spaces to ensure the free movement of people and goods, to exploit their resources, but also to protect them.  To what extent do the seas and oceans constitute a major geostrategic issue on a planetary scale? (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for")
5. Détail source à réviser : geostrategic issue on a planetary scale? (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oce (Source: "geostrategic issue on a planetary scale? (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans. Around 80 million tons of fish are caught at sea every year. China is the main producer and exporter of fishery products, far ahead of")
6. Détail source à réviser : at sea every year. China is the main producer and exporter of fishery products, far ahead of Indonesia. This massive global fishing raises fears of resources depletion. In addition, the effects of climate change, which c (Source: "at sea every year. China is the main producer and exporter of fishery products, far ahead of Indonesia. This massive global fishing raises fears of resources depletion. In addition, the effects of climate change, which causes certain species to migrate to colder areas, modify the locations of fishing areas. The share of aquaculture in the animal and")
7. Détail source à réviser : colder areas, modify the locations of fishing areas. The share of aquaculture in the animal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year. • Energy, sand (Source: "colder areas, modify the locations of fishing areas. The share of aquaculture in the animal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year. • Energy, sand, minerals and seawater : strategic maritime resources Hydrocarbons represent the largest share of marine energy resources. Offshore today")
8. Détail source à réviser : resources Hydrocarbons represent the largest share of marine energy resources. Offshore today constitutes 30% of world oil production and 27% of gas. However, these resources are unequally distributed, which generates tr (Source: "resources Hydrocarbons represent the largest share of marine energy resources. Offshore today constitutes 30% of world oil production and 27% of gas. However, these resources are unequally distributed, which generates trade on a global scale. The seas and oceans have other energy resources that are called MRE (marine renewable energies). Offshore wind")
9. Détail source à réviser : have other energy resources that are called MRE (marine renewable energies). Offshore wind farms have multiplied, especially in Europe. The force of the tide, the swell or sea currents can also be exploited to generate e (Source: "have other energy resources that are called MRE (marine renewable energies). Offshore wind farms have multiplied, especially in Europe. The force of the tide, the swell or sea currents can also be exploited to generate electricity. Finally, seawater can be desalinated. This solution is considered by some countries in a situation of water stress, such")
10. Détail source à réviser : desalinated. This solution is considered by some countries in a situation of water stress, such as in the Middle East. Sand is a strategic resource, necessary for all constructions (roads, buildings). It is subject to in (Source: "desalinated. This solution is considered by some countries in a situation of water stress, such as in the Middle East. Sand is a strategic resource, necessary for all constructions (roads, buildings). It is subject to intensive exploitation, particularly in Sierra Leone and Indonesia where 25 islands have already disappeared. The seas and oceans are full")
11. Détail source à réviser : Leone and Indonesia where 25 islands have already disappeared. The seas and oceans are full of biochemical resources and rare minerals with polymetallic nodules present in the seabed. However, these are not yet exploited (Source: "Leone and Indonesia where 25 islands have already disappeared. The seas and oceans are full of biochemical resources and rare minerals with polymetallic nodules present in the seabed. However, these are not yet exploited for cost reasons. 1 halieutique SEAS AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are")
12. Détail source à réviser : AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth. The Caribbean Sea is the main cruising basin, followed by the Mediterranean Sea. Trans (Source: "AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth. The Caribbean Sea is the main cruising basin, followed by the Mediterranean Sea. Transnational firms provide most of the market, but this activity is increasingly called into question because of its ecological impact.")
13. Détail source à réviser : but this activity is increasingly called into question because of its ecological impact. Sailing is another marine activity whose practice has greatly developed since the end of the 20th century. It has generated vast co (Source: "but this activity is increasingly called into question because of its ecological impact. Sailing is another marine activity whose practice has greatly developed since the end of the 20th century. It has generated vast coastal developments, in a fairly standardized way, with marinas2 . Dubai is currently home to the largest marina in the world which can")
14. Détail source à réviser : way, with marinas2 . Dubai is currently home to the largest marina in the world which can accommodate 4,400 yachts and 6,000 passengers. There are many sports or recreational activities at sea. Sea bathing, diving or boa (Source: "way, with marinas2 . Dubai is currently home to the largest marina in the world which can accommodate 4,400 yachts and 6,000 passengers. There are many sports or recreational activities at sea. Sea bathing, diving or board sports attract tourists and local practitioners in “spots”, some of which are famous such as Hawaii. II – Maritime areas:")
15. Détail source à réviser : practitioners in “spots”, some of which are famous such as Hawaii. II – Maritime areas: supports for globalized exchanges • Most of goods and information exchanged in the world pass by sea. The vast majority – around 90% (Source: "practitioners in “spots”, some of which are famous such as Hawaii. II – Maritime areas: supports for globalized exchanges • Most of goods and information exchanged in the world pass by sea. The vast majority – around 90% - of what we consume is transported by sea. The goods transported are very varied and each product corresponds to a suitable type of")
16. Détail source à réviser : sea. The goods transported are very varied and each product corresponds to a suitable type of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier). Ships follow prec (Source: "sea. The goods transported are very varied and each product corresponds to a suitable type of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier). Ships follow precisely marked and monitored routes. The main flows connect the major areas of power on the planet, both production and consumption spaces.")
17. Détail source à réviser : main flows connect the major areas of power on the planet, both production and consumption spaces. A few strategic passages punctuate the main roads; the straits of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Gibraltar, Hormuz, the Suez and (Source: "main flows connect the major areas of power on the planet, both production and consumption spaces. A few strategic passages punctuate the main roads; the straits of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Gibraltar, Hormuz, the Suez and Panama canals or even the English Channel. These are choke points. Intangible flows are just as dependent on the seas and oceans. In fact,")
18. Détail source à réviser : These are choke points. Intangible flows are just as dependent on the seas and oceans. In fact, 90% of telecommunications and the Internet pass through fiber optic cables laid on the seabed. Maritime flows are also made (Source: "These are choke points. Intangible flows are just as dependent on the seas and oceans. In fact, 90% of telecommunications and the Internet pass through fiber optic cables laid on the seabed. Maritime flows are also made up of illicit flows, such as flows linked to the drug trade, for example in the Caribbean Sea. The flow of migrants in the Mediterranean")
19. Détail source à réviser : to the drug trade, for example in the Caribbean Sea. The flow of migrants in the Mediterranean is increasing sharply and reveals illegal migration networks. • The revolution in maritime transport One of the major innovat (Source: "to the drug trade, for example in the Caribbean Sea. The flow of migrants in the Mediterranean is increasing sharply and reveals illegal migration networks. • The revolution in maritime transport One of the major innovations in global maritime trade in the 20th century in containerization. Today, the largest container ships exceed 20,000 TEUs3 (i.e.")
20. Détail source à réviser : century in containerization. Today, the largest container ships exceed 20,000 TEUs3 (i.e. more than 20,000 boxes on board) but a whole network of smaller ships provides local transport. The domination of maritime flows i (Source: "century in containerization. Today, the largest container ships exceed 20,000 TEUs3 (i.e. more than 20,000 boxes on board) but a whole network of smaller ships provides local transport. The domination of maritime flows in world trade thus characterizes the maritimization of the economy. Transport costs and times have decreased enormously thanks to")
21. Détail source à réviser : maritimization of the economy. Transport costs and times have decreased enormously thanks to various technical developments: we are talking about a revolution in maritime transport: a few large transnational firms domina (Source: "maritimization of the economy. Transport costs and times have decreased enormously thanks to various technical developments: we are talking about a revolution in maritime transport: a few large transnational firms dominate the sectors such as MAERSK (Denmark) or CMA CGM (France). Ports around the world have adapted to the gigantism of ships and the")
22. Détail source à réviser : CMA CGM (France). Ports around the world have adapted to the gigantism of ships and the uninterrupted growth of flows. Asian ports – and Chinese ones in particular – dominate today: Shanghai, Singapore, Ningbo, Shenzhen, (Source: "CMA CGM (France). Ports around the world have adapted to the gigantism of ships and the uninterrupted growth of flows. Asian ports – and Chinese ones in particular – dominate today: Shanghai, Singapore, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Hong Kong. 2 Development combining a marina and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit SEAS AND OCEANS 3 • The new perspectives and")
23. Détail source à réviser : and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit SEAS AND OCEANS 3 • The new perspectives and the associated risks Maritime transport is constantly evolving, depending on the economic or political situation but also on th (Source: "and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit SEAS AND OCEANS 3 • The new perspectives and the associated risks Maritime transport is constantly evolving, depending on the economic or political situation but also on the environmental evolution. The passages from the North-East to the North of Russia and from the North-West to the North of Canada,")
24. Détail source à réviser : from the North-East to the North of Russia and from the North-West to the North of Canada, opened thanks to global warming and the melting of the pack of ice, are an example of this. A threat for the future. However, the (Source: "from the North-East to the North of Russia and from the North-West to the North of Canada, opened thanks to global warming and the melting of the pack of ice, are an example of this. A threat for the future. However, the opening of these roads is still limited. Many challenges remain to be met by maritime transport companies: coping with regional")
25. Détail source à réviser : Many challenges remain to be met by maritime transport companies: coping with regional tensions, limiting accidents (oil spills) and reducing the significant releases of greenhouse gases from ships. III – Coveted maritim (Source: "Many challenges remain to be met by maritime transport companies: coping with regional tensions, limiting accidents (oil spills) and reducing the significant releases of greenhouse gases from ships. III – Coveted maritime spaces • Exploitation of the seas and oceans permitted by agreements The oceans are major geopolitical issues. The question of")
26. Détail source à réviser : and oceans permitted by agreements The oceans are major geopolitical issues. The question of access to resources, fisheries, hydrocarbons but also minerals (rare earths), and the right to move has been particularly reinf (Source: "and oceans permitted by agreements The oceans are major geopolitical issues. The question of access to resources, fisheries, hydrocarbons but also minerals (rare earths), and the right to move has been particularly reinforced with globalization. Their exploitation by nations is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),")
27. Détail source à réviser : by nations is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982 in Montego Bay. It establishes a zoning system and notably defines the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which constitu (Source: "by nations is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982 in Montego Bay. It establishes a zoning system and notably defines the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which constitutes an essential issue since the coastal State exercises exclusive resource exploitation rights up to 200 miles from the coast. France")
28. Détail source à réviser : State exercises exclusive resource exploitation rights up to 200 miles from the coast. France has the second largest in the world (10,754,858 km2) behind the United States (12,168,352 km2), since it combines the EEZ of m (Source: "State exercises exclusive resource exploitation rights up to 200 miles from the coast. France has the second largest in the world (10,754,858 km2) behind the United States (12,168,352 km2), since it combines the EEZ of mainland France and overseas territories. And the UK has the eighth largest (773,676 km2). Beyond is the high seas, which represents 64%")
29. Détail source à réviser : And the UK has the eighth largest (773,676 km2). Beyond is the high seas, which represents 64% of the surface of the seas and oceans. All states, with or without coastlines, can freely carry out navigation, fishing, over (Source: "And the UK has the eighth largest (773,676 km2). Beyond is the high seas, which represents 64% of the surface of the seas and oceans. All states, with or without coastlines, can freely carry out navigation, fishing, overflight and submarine cable laying activities there, and the seabed is considered part of the common heritage of the humanity. • A")
30. Détail source à réviser : there, and the seabed is considered part of the common heritage of the humanity. • A multiplication of actors on the seas and oceans However, this zoning is not the only framework for the exploitation of the oceans. Inde (Source: "there, and the seabed is considered part of the common heritage of the humanity. • A multiplication of actors on the seas and oceans However, this zoning is not the only framework for the exploitation of the oceans. Indeed, governance at a finer scale is needed to deal with specific issues. For example, there are regional fishing organizations (RFOs)")
31. Détail source à réviser : needed to deal with specific issues. For example, there are regional fishing organizations (RFOs) bringing together different nations around the same fishing region. Ocean governance is therefore exercised at several sca (Source: "needed to deal with specific issues. For example, there are regional fishing organizations (RFOs) bringing together different nations around the same fishing region. Ocean governance is therefore exercised at several scales, and mobilizes many actors. This multiplication is reinforced by the fact that certain intergovernmental bodies have competences in")
32. Détail source à réviser : is reinforced by the fact that certain intergovernmental bodies have competences in terms of the marine environment: regulations on fishing techniques are issued by the FAO for example. • Rivalries and conflicts around t (Source: "is reinforced by the fact that certain intergovernmental bodies have competences in terms of the marine environment: regulations on fishing techniques are issued by the FAO for example. • Rivalries and conflicts around the seas and oceans However the oceans remain a factor of tension between States, in particular through the crucial question of")
33. Détail source à réviser : oceans remain a factor of tension between States, in particular through the crucial question of the delimitation of EEZs. Indeed some coasts are too close for each state to obtain 200 nautical miles. Sharing is therefore (Source: "oceans remain a factor of tension between States, in particular through the crucial question of the delimitation of EEZs. Indeed some coasts are too close for each state to obtain 200 nautical miles. Sharing is therefore often the subject of tensions, such as those observed between Slovenia and Croatia in the Adriatic Sea. In addition, the Montego Bay")
34. Détail source à réviser : those observed between Slovenia and Croatia in the Adriatic Sea. In addition, the Montego Bay Convention provides for the possibility of extending the EEZ of a country on the continental shelf within the limit of 350 nau (Source: "those observed between Slovenia and Croatia in the Adriatic Sea. In addition, the Montego Bay Convention provides for the possibility of extending the EEZ of a country on the continental shelf within the limit of 350 nautical miles. These tensions sometimes lead to conflicts, for example in the South China Sea. Issues of conflicts, the oceans are also the")
35. Détail source à réviser : to conflicts, for example in the South China Sea. Issues of conflicts, the oceans are also the theater. Evidenced by the contemporary piracy phenomenon, which affects both merchant ships and pleasure craft (2011 was a re (Source: "to conflicts, for example in the South China Sea. Issues of conflicts, the oceans are also the theater. Evidenced by the contemporary piracy phenomenon, which affects both merchant ships and pleasure craft (2011 was a record year for Somali Piracy in the Gulf of Aden with more than 175 attacks). The Atlanta mission, implemented by the European Union, has")
36. Détail source à réviser : of Aden with more than 175 attacks). The Atlanta mission, implemented by the European Union, has since considerably reduced the number of incidents. In the 2020’s , acts of piracy are increasing sharply in the Gulf of Gu (Source: "of Aden with more than 175 attacks). The Atlanta mission, implemented by the European Union, has since considerably reduced the number of incidents. In the 2020’s , acts of piracy are increasing sharply in the Gulf of Guinea, which has become the region most affected by. SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a")
37. Détail source à réviser : by. SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate (Source: "by. SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate change. The oceans are powerful climate regulators thanks to their ability to absorb heat but also CO2. A quarter of the CO2")
38. Détail source à réviser : regulators thanks to their ability to absorb heat but also CO2. A quarter of the CO2 produced by humans is absorbed by the oceans every day! Reservoir of threatened biodiversity, the ocean is subject to processes such as (Source: "regulators thanks to their ability to absorb heat but also CO2. A quarter of the CO2 produced by humans is absorbed by the oceans every day! Reservoir of threatened biodiversity, the ocean is subject to processes such as warming, acidification or rising water levels which have a lasting impact on ecosystems but also on populations, since 40% of human")
39. Détail source à réviser : levels which have a lasting impact on ecosystems but also on populations, since 40% of human beings currently live in less than 100 kilometers from the sea. The ocean is particularly affected by pollution, especially pla (Source: "levels which have a lasting impact on ecosystems but also on populations, since 40% of human beings currently live in less than 100 kilometers from the sea. The ocean is particularly affected by pollution, especially plastic waste. The immense oceanic gyre of the “ 7th continent “, in the Pacific Ocean, has become its symbol. In 2017, the UN launched")
40. Détail source à réviser : of the “ 7th continent “, in the Pacific Ocean, has become its symbol. In 2017, the UN launched the #CleanSeas campaign to encourage governments to adopt policies to reduce plastics. To this chronic pollution is added th (Source: "of the “ 7th continent “, in the Pacific Ocean, has become its symbol. In 2017, the UN launched the #CleanSeas campaign to encourage governments to adopt policies to reduce plastics. To this chronic pollution is added that generated by accidents: shipwrecks, but also industrial accidents, such as the explosion of DeepWater Horizon offshore platform in 2010")
41. Détail source à réviser : also industrial accidents, such as the explosion of DeepWater Horizon offshore platform in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accidents such as that of the Japanese power plant in Fukushima in 2011, during which (Source: "also industrial accidents, such as the explosion of DeepWater Horizon offshore platform in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accidents such as that of the Japanese power plant in Fukushima in 2011, during which 80% of radioactive releases spread to the sea. • Fishing, between overexploitation and sustainability Fishing is currently a sensitive")
42. Détail source à réviser : sea. • Fishing, between overexploitation and sustainability Fishing is currently a sensitive international stake. Conflicts are regular around the delimitation of fishing areas, such as between Senegalese and Mauritanian (Source: "sea. • Fishing, between overexploitation and sustainability Fishing is currently a sensitive international stake. Conflicts are regular around the delimitation of fishing areas, such as between Senegalese and Mauritanian waters, where tensions erupt every year between fishermen and coastguards. Sustainable fishing has become a pressing issue. 31% of fish")
43. Détail source à réviser : between fishermen and coastguards. Sustainable fishing has become a pressing issue. 31% of fish stocks are overexploited today, compared to less than 10% in 1974. In addition, illegal fishing concerns 15% of total produc (Source: "between fishermen and coastguards. Sustainable fishing has become a pressing issue. 31% of fish stocks are overexploited today, compared to less than 10% in 1974. In addition, illegal fishing concerns 15% of total production. Sustainable fisheries management is therefore necessary, as evidence by the rise of sustainable fisheries labels (such as MSC).")
44. Détail source à réviser : is therefore necessary, as evidence by the rise of sustainable fisheries labels (such as MSC). The development of aquaculture appears to be a solution for preserving marine species. However, this highly industrialized se (Source: "is therefore necessary, as evidence by the rise of sustainable fisheries labels (such as MSC). The development of aquaculture appears to be a solution for preserving marine species. However, this highly industrialized sector makes massive use of antibiotics and disinfectants and has repercussions on the environment. In addition, these farms use fishmeal")
45. Détail source à réviser : disinfectants and has repercussions on the environment. In addition, these farms use fishmeal which causes even more overfishing. • Complex protection policies Maritime spaces are today perceived fragile resources. The n (Source: "disinfectants and has repercussions on the environment. In addition, these farms use fishmeal which causes even more overfishing. • Complex protection policies Maritime spaces are today perceived fragile resources. The need to protect the ocean is included in the 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14). The rise of MPAs")
46. Détail source à réviser : the 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14). The rise of MPAs (Marine protected areas) bears witness to this concern. These marine environment protection areas can be fully or partially pr (Source: "the 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14). The rise of MPAs (Marine protected areas) bears witness to this concern. These marine environment protection areas can be fully or partially protected and their use regulated. The goals are ecological but also touristic. Today, there are more than 11,300 MPAs, but two-thirds are")
47. Détail source à réviser : are ecological but also touristic. Today, there are more than 11,300 MPAs, but two-thirds are only partially protected and they currently cover only 3.7% of the world’s maritime areas. Finally, many NGOs, such as Greenpe (Source: "are ecological but also touristic. Today, there are more than 11,300 MPAs, but two-thirds are only partially protected and they currently cover only 3.7% of the world’s maritime areas. Finally, many NGOs, such as Greenpeace or Sea Shepherd, are actors in this governance through their work in favor of the protection of the oceans. For example, the")
48. Détail source à réviser : in this governance through their work in favor of the protection of the oceans. For example, the Greenpeace boat Esperanza left in April 2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to r (Source: "in this governance through their work in favor of the protection of the oceans. For example, the Greenpeace boat Esperanza left in April 2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to raise awareness among the general public and to act in favor of an international treaty on the creation of marine reserve on the high")
49. Détail source à réviser : SEAS AND OCEANS 1 SEAS AND OCEANS: vectors of globalization, between appropriation, protection and freedom of movement Introduction (Source: "SEAS AND OCEANS 1 SEAS AND OCEANS: vectors of globalization, between appropriation, protection and freedom of movement Introduction")
50. Détail source à réviser : IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans (Source: "IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans")
51. Détail source à réviser : The share of aquaculture in the animal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year (Source: "The share of aquaculture in the animal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year")
52. Détail source à réviser : • Energy, sand, minerals and seawater : strategic maritime resources Hydrocarbons represent the largest share of marine energy resources (Source: "• Energy, sand, minerals and seawater : strategic maritime resources Hydrocarbons represent the largest share of marine energy resources")
53. Détail source à réviser : It is subject to intensive exploitation, particularly in Sierra Leone and Indonesia where 25 islands have already disappeared (Source: "It is subject to intensive exploitation, particularly in Sierra Leone and Indonesia where 25 islands have already disappeared")
54. Détail source à réviser : 1 halieutique SEAS AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth (Source: "1 halieutique SEAS AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth")
55. Détail source à réviser : II – Maritime areas: supports for globalized exchanges • Most of goods and information exchanged in the world pass by sea (Source: "II – Maritime areas: supports for globalized exchanges • Most of goods and information exchanged in the world pass by sea")
56. Détail source à réviser : The goods transported are very varied and each product corresponds to a suitable type of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier) (Source: "The goods transported are very varied and each product corresponds to a suitable type of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier)")
57. Détail source à réviser : A few strategic passages punctuate the main roads; the straits of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Gibraltar, Hormuz, the Suez and Panama canals or even the English Channel (Source: "A few strategic passages punctuate the main roads; the straits of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Gibraltar, Hormuz, the Suez and Panama canals or even the English Channel")
58. Détail source à réviser : Transport costs and times have decreased enormously thanks to various technical developments: we are talking about a revolution in maritime transport: a few large transnational firms dominate the sectors such as MAERSK ( (Source: "Transport costs and times have decreased enormously thanks to various technical developments: we are talking about a revolution in maritime transport: a few large transnational firms dominate the sectors such as MAERSK (Denmark) or CMA CGM (France)")
59. Détail source à réviser : 2 Development combining a marina and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit SEAS AND OCEANS 3 • The new perspectives and the associated risks Maritime transport is constantly evolving, depending on the economic or p (Source: "2 Development combining a marina and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit SEAS AND OCEANS 3 • The new perspectives and the associated risks Maritime transport is constantly evolving, depending on the economic or political situation but also on the environmental evolution")
60. Détail source à réviser : The passages from the North-East to the North of Russia and from the North-West to the North of Canada, opened thanks to global warming and the melting of the pack of ice, are an example of this (Source: "The passages from the North-East to the North of Russia and from the North-West to the North of Canada, opened thanks to global warming and the melting of the pack of ice, are an example of this")
61. Détail source à réviser : III – Coveted maritime spaces • Exploitation of the seas and oceans permitted by agreements The oceans are major geopolitical issues (Source: "III – Coveted maritime spaces • Exploitation of the seas and oceans permitted by agreements The oceans are major geopolitical issues")
62. Détail source à réviser : 1982 in Montego Bay (Source: "1982 in Montego Bay")
63. Détail source à réviser : verflight and submarine cable laying activities there, and the seabed is considered part of the common heritage of the humanity. (Source: "verflight and submarine cable laying activities there, and the seabed is considered part of the common heritage of the humanity.")
64. Détail source à réviser : This multiplication is reinforced by the fact that certain intergovernmental bodies have competences in terms of the marine environment: regulations on fishing techniques are issued by the FAO for example (Source: "This multiplication is reinforced by the fact that certain intergovernmental bodies have competences in terms of the marine environment: regulations on fishing techniques are issued by the FAO for example")
65. Détail source à réviser : Bay Convention provides for the possibility of extending the EEZ of a country on the continental shelf within the limit of 350 nautical miles. (Source: "Bay Convention provides for the possibility of extending the EEZ of a country on the continental shelf within the limit of 350 nautical miles.")
66. Détail source à réviser : 2020’s , acts of piracy are increasing sharply in the Gulf of Guinea, which has become the region most affected by (Source: "2020’s , acts of piracy are increasing sharply in the Gulf of Guinea, which has become the region most affected by")
67. Détail source à réviser : ustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate change. The oceans are powerful climate regulators thanks to their ability to (Source: "ustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate change. The oceans are powerful climate regulators thanks to their ability to")
68. Détail source à réviser : 2017, the UN launched the #CleanSeas campaign to encourage governments to adopt policies to reduce plastics (Source: "2017, the UN launched the #CleanSeas campaign to encourage governments to adopt policies to reduce plastics")
69. Détail source à réviser : 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accidents such as that of the Japanese power plant in Fukushima in 2011, during which 80% of radioactive releases spread to the sea (Source: "2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accidents such as that of the Japanese power plant in Fukushima in 2011, during which 80% of radioactive releases spread to the sea")
70. Détail source à réviser : % of fish stocks are overexploited today, compared to less than 10% in 1974. (Source: "% of fish stocks are overexploited today, compared to less than 10% in 1974.")
71. Détail source à réviser : 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14) (Source: "2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14)")
72. Détail source à réviser : 2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to raise awareness among the general public and to act in favor of an international treaty on the creation of marine reserve on the high seas (Source: "2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to raise awareness among the general public and to act in favor of an international treaty on the creation of marine reserve on the high seas")
73. Détail source à réviser : 2011 was a record year for Somali Piracy in the Gulf of Aden with more than 175 attacks) (Source: "2011 was a record year for Somali Piracy in the Gulf of Aden with more than 175 attacks)")
74. Détail source à réviser : The need to protect the ocean is included in the 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14) (Source: "The need to protect the ocean is included in the 2023 Agenda adopted by the UN in 2015 (Sustainable Development Goal 14)")
75. Détail source à réviser : II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major political, economic but also environmental issues in a context of globalization (Source: "II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major political, economic but also environmental issues in a context of globalization")
76. Détail source à réviser : Today, there are more than 11,300 MPAs, but two-thirds are only partially protected and they currently cover only 3 (Source: "Today, there are more than 11,300 MPAs, but two-thirds are only partially protected and they currently cover only 3")
77. Détail source à réviser : To what extent do the seas and oceans constitute a major geostrategic issue on a planetary scale? (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fisher (Source: "To what extent do the seas and oceans constitute a major geostrategic issue on a planetary scale? (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans")
78. Détail source à réviser : SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate cha (Source: "SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean ? • An endangered environment The ocean has become a priority space in the fight against climate change. The oceans are powerful climate regulators thanks to th")
79. Détail source à réviser : To this chronic pollution is added that generated by accidents: shipwrecks, but also industrial accidents, such as the explosion of DeepWater Horizon offshore platform in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accide (Source: "To this chronic pollution is added that generated by accidents: shipwrecks, but also industrial accidents, such as the explosion of DeepWater Horizon offshore platform in 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico or even nuclear accidents such as that of the Japanese power plant in Fukushima in 2011, during which 80% of radioactive releases spread to the sea")
80. Détail source à réviser : SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean (Source: "SEAS AND OCEANS 4 IV – The ocean, a resource to be protected How to set up a sustainable management of the global ocean")
81. Détail source à réviser : For example, the Greenpeace boat Esperanza left in April 2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to raise awareness among the general public and to act in favor of an international (Source: "For example, the Greenpeace boat Esperanza left in April 2019 for an exploration trip linking the North Pole to the South Pole in order to raise awareness among the general public and to act in favor of an international treaty on the creation of marine reserve on the high seas")
82. Détail source à réviser : They are also essential supports of globalization exchanges: it is the maritimization of the world economy (Source: "They are also essential supports of globalization exchanges: it is the maritimization of the world economy")
83. Détail source à réviser : (III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans (Source: "(III / IV) I – Maritime resources, essential for societies • Fishing and aquaculture : essential resources for food Fishery resources1 are the oldest exploited in the seas and oceans")
84. Détail source à réviser : Evidenced by the contemporary piracy phenomenon, which affects both merchant ships and pleasure craft (2011 was a record year for Somali Piracy in the Gulf of Aden with more than 175 attacks) (Source: "Evidenced by the contemporary piracy phenomenon, which affects both merchant ships and pleasure craft (2011 was a record year for Somali Piracy in the Gulf of Aden with more than 175 attacks)")
85. Détail source à réviser : In what way are maritime spaces essential, as supports for globalized exchanges? (I / II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major political, economic but also environmental issues in a cont (Source: "In what way are maritime spaces essential, as supports for globalized exchanges? (I / II) Because they represent a major resource, the seas and oceans are major political, economic but also environmental issues in a context of globalization. Multiple actors are trying to appropri")
86. Détail source à réviser : With 71% of the earth’s surface and a volume of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the largest reserve and the larges biological mass in the world (Source: "With 71% of the earth’s surface and a volume of 1,320 million km3, the ocean constitute the largest reserve and the larges biological mass in the world")
87. Détail source à réviser : The vast majority – around 90% - of what we consume is transported by sea (Source: "The vast majority – around 90% - of what we consume is transported by sea")
88. Détail source à réviser : The immense oceanic gyre of the “ 7th continent “, in the Pacific Ocean, has become its symbol (Source: "The immense oceanic gyre of the “ 7th continent “, in the Pacific Ocean, has become its symbol")
89. Détail source à réviser : Dubai is currently home to the largest marina in the world which can accommodate 4,400 yachts and 6,000 passengers (Source: "Dubai is currently home to the largest marina in the world which can accommodate 4,400 yachts and 6,000 passengers")
90. Détail source à réviser : • The revolution in maritime transport One of the major innovations in global maritime trade in the 20th century in containerization (Source: "• The revolution in maritime transport One of the major innovations in global maritime trade in the 20th century in containerization")
91. Détail source à réviser : more than 20,000 boxes on board) but a whole network of smaller ships provides local transport (Source: "more than 20,000 boxes on board) but a whole network of smaller ships provides local transport")
92. Détail source à réviser : Around 80 million tons of fish are caught at sea every year (Source: "Around 80 million tons of fish are caught at sea every year")
93. Détail source à réviser : mal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year. (Source: "mal and plant (algae) production of marine species continues to grow: it produces more than 28 million tons per year.")
94. Détail source à réviser : loited for cost reasons. 1 halieutique SEAS AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth. The Caribbean Sea is the main cruising (Source: "loited for cost reasons. 1 halieutique SEAS AND OCEANS 2 • Maritime areas: resources for tourism and leisure Maritime cruise activities are experiencing very significant growth. The Caribbean Sea is the main cruising")
95. Détail source à réviser : ype of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier). (Source: "ype of ship: oil (tanker), gas (gas), manufactured products (container ships), cereals and minerals (bulk carrier).")
96. Détail source à réviser : uninterrupted growth of flows. Asian ports – and Chinese ones in particular – dominate today: Shanghai, Singapore, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Hong Kong. 2 Development combining a marina and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot (Source: "uninterrupted growth of flows. Asian ports – and Chinese ones in particular – dominate today: Shanghai, Singapore, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Hong Kong. 2 Development combining a marina and accommodation 3 Twenty-foot")

📅 Repères chronologiques

Date	Événement
1982	Adoption de la UNCLOS
2010	Marée noire Deepwater Horizon
2011	Catastrophe nucléaire Fukushima
2015	Objectifs de développement durable de l'ONU
2017	Accord de Paris sur le climat
2019	Conflits en mer de Chine méridionale

📊 Tableaux de Synthèse

Comparaison des ressources maritimes

Type de ressource	Exemples	Impacts
Halieutiques	Poisson, crustacés, mollusques	Alimentation, économie locale
Énergétiques	Pétrole, gaz	Indépendance énergétique, enjeux géopolitiques
Minérales	Sable, minéraux, nodules polymétalliques	Exploitation

⚠️ Pièges & Confusions Fréquentes

1. Confusion entre ZEE et haute mer, notamment sur leur étendue et droits d'exploitation.
2. Mélanger les enjeux environnementaux avec les enjeux géopolitiques sans distinction claire.
3. Confusion entre les différents types de navires et leurs fonctions.
4. Omettre la distinction entre ressources renouvelables et non renouvelables.
5. Confondre les zones de contrôle national et international dans le contexte juridique.
6. Ignorer l'impact des catastrophes marines sur la biodiversité.
7. Sous-estimer la complexité de la gouvernance régionale des espaces maritimes.

✅ Checklist Examen

1. Identifier les principales ressources marines et leurs usages.
2. Comprendre le cadre juridique international, notamment la UNCLOS.
3. Analyser les enjeux géopolitiques liés aux routes maritimes.
4. Évaluer les risques environnementaux liés à l'exploitation maritime.
5. Connaître les acteurs principaux de la gouvernance maritime.
6. Étudier l'impact de la maritimisation sur l'économie mondiale.
7. Reconnaître les zones stratégiques et choke points.
8. Différencier les types de navires et leurs fonctions.