Scheda di revisione: Understanding Psychiatric Classification and Disorders

📋 Course Outline

1. Psychiatric Classification
2. Anxiety Disorders
3. Mood Disorders
4. Psychotic Disorders
5. Personality Disorders
6. Eating Disorders
7. Etiology Factors
8. Assessment Methods
9. Psychotherapy Approaches
10. Pharmacotherapy Options
11. Emerging Treatments
12. Psychiatrist's Role

📖 1. Psychiatric Classification

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition): The authoritative classification system published by the American Psychiatric Association, providing standardized criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.

• Categorical Classification: A system that classifies mental disorders into distinct categories based on specific criteria, such as those outlined in the DSM-5.

• Dimensional Approach: An alternative to categorical classification that assesses mental health on a continuum, considering severity and spectrum of symptoms rather than fixed categories.

• Nosology: The branch of medical science that deals with classification of diseases, including mental disorders, aiming for systematic organization.

• Validity and Reliability: Key principles in classification systems; validity refers to how accurately a disorder is defined and diagnosed, while reliability pertains to consistency across different clinicians and settings.

• Multiaxial System (used in DSM-IV): An older classification system that assessed disorders across multiple axes (clinical disorders, personality disorders, medical conditions, psychosocial factors). DSM-5 has moved away from this model.

📝 Essential Points

• The DSM-5 is the primary tool for psychiatric classification, providing diagnostic criteria based on symptom clusters, duration, and functional impairment.

• Classification aids in communication among clinicians, guides treatment planning, and facilitates research.

• The categorical approach simplifies diagnosis but may overlook symptom severity and spectrum; the dimensional approach considers these nuances.

• Accurate classification depends on high validity (correctly identifying disorders) and reliability (consistent diagnosis across clinicians).

• The shift from DSM-IV's multiaxial system to DSM-5's nonaxial system reflects evolving understanding of mental disorders, emphasizing integrated diagnosis.

• Classification systems are periodically updated to incorporate new research findings, improve diagnostic accuracy, and reflect changes in societal understanding.

💡 Key Takeaway

Psychiatric classification, primarily through DSM-5, provides a standardized framework for diagnosing mental disorders, balancing categorical and dimensional approaches to enhance clinical accuracy, communication, and research.

📖 2. Anxiety Disorders

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Anxiety: A future-oriented emotional state characterized by feelings of worry, nervousness, or fear, often accompanied by physiological symptoms such as increased heart rate or sweating.

• Anxiety Disorder: A mental health condition marked by excessive and persistent fear or anxiety that impairs daily functioning, beyond normal stress responses.

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Chronic, excessive worry about multiple domains (e.g., health, work, social interactions) lasting at least six months, with physical symptoms like restlessness or muscle tension.

• Panic Attack: An abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort, reaching a peak within minutes, with symptoms including palpitations, chest pain, shortness of breath, and a sense of impending doom.

• Phobia: An intense, irrational fear of specific objects or situations (e.g., heights, spiders) leading to avoidance behavior.

• Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia): Significant fear of social or performance situations where one may be scrutinized, leading to avoidance and distress.

📝 Essential Points

• Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental health conditions, with GAD affecting about 3-4% of the population annually.
• Panic disorder involves recurrent panic attacks and often coexists with agoraphobia, where individuals fear situations where escape might be difficult.
• Phobias are specific and often develop through classical conditioning; they are highly treatable with exposure therapy.
• The neurobiology of anxiety involves dysregulation of neurotransmitters like GABA, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
• Differential diagnosis includes medical conditions (e.g., hyperthyroidism), substance use, and other psychiatric disorders like depression.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is the first-line treatment, often combined with pharmacotherapy (SSRIs, benzodiazepines for short-term use).
• Recognizing comorbidities such as depression or substance abuse is crucial for effective management.

💡 Key Takeaway

Anxiety disorders are prevalent, treatable mental health conditions characterized by excessive fear or worry, with effective interventions including psychotherapy and medication; early recognition and comprehensive management are essential for optimal outcomes.

📖 3. Mood Disorders

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Mood Disorder: A mental health condition characterized by significant disturbances in a person's emotional state, affecting their ability to function. Includes depressive and bipolar disorders.
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): A mood disorder marked by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest, and other symptoms like changes in sleep, appetite, and energy, lasting at least two weeks.
• Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder involving episodes of mania/hypomania and depression, with Bipolar I featuring full manic episodes and Bipolar II involving hypomanic episodes.
• Mania: A state of abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, often with increased activity or energy, lasting at least one week.
• Hypomania: A milder form of mania lasting at least four days, without significant impairment or psychosis.
• Dysthymia (Persistent Depressive Disorder): A chronic form of depression with less severe symptoms lasting at least two years.

📝 Essential Points

• Mood disorders are classified mainly into depressive disorders (e.g., MDD, dysthymia) and bipolar disorders.
• Major depressive episodes require at least five symptoms (e.g., depressed mood, anhedonia, sleep disturbances) for a minimum of two weeks.
• Bipolar disorder involves cyclical mood episodes; the distinction between Bipolar I and II hinges on the severity and type of episodes.
• Biological factors include neurotransmitter imbalances (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine), genetic predisposition, and neuroanatomical changes.
• Environmental stressors, trauma, and psychosocial factors contribute significantly to mood disorder onset and course.
• Treatment includes pharmacotherapy (SSRIs, mood stabilizers), psychotherapy (CBT, interpersonal therapy), and lifestyle modifications.
• Comorbidities are common, especially anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and personality disorders.
• Early diagnosis and comprehensive treatment improve prognosis and reduce relapse risk.

💡 Key Takeaway

Mood disorders, encompassing depression and bipolar disorder, are complex conditions influenced by biological and environmental factors; effective management requires a combination of medication, psychotherapy, and lifestyle strategies to restore emotional stability and functioning.

📖 4. Psychotic Disorders

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Psychosis: A mental state characterized by a loss of contact with reality, including hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and abnormal motor behavior.
• Schizophrenia: A chronic psychotic disorder marked by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions), negative symptoms (apathy, social withdrawal), disorganized speech, and cognitive deficits.
• Delusions: Fixed false beliefs that are resistant to reason or contrary evidence, often paranoid or grandiose in nature.
• Hallucinations: Perceptions without external stimuli, most commonly auditory in schizophrenia.
• Negative Symptoms: Affective flattening, alogia (poverty of speech), avolition (lack of motivation), and anhedonia (loss of pleasure).
• Prodromal Phase: Early symptoms before the full onset of psychosis, including social withdrawal and subtle cognitive changes.

📝 Essential Points

• Etiology: Multifactorial, involving genetic predisposition, neurodevelopmental abnormalities, dopamine dysregulation, and environmental stressors.
• Dopamine Hypothesis: Overactivity of dopamine pathways in the mesolimbic system is linked to positive symptoms; underactivity in the prefrontal cortex may contribute to negative symptoms.
• Diagnosis: Based on DSM-5 criteria—presence of characteristic symptoms for at least 6 months, with at least 1 month of active psychosis.
• Subtypes: Historically classified into paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual types; DSM-5 now emphasizes a dimensional approach.
• Treatment: Antipsychotic medications (typical and atypical), psychosocial interventions, and early intervention are key.
• Prognosis: Variable; early treatment improves outcomes, but some patients experience persistent symptoms or relapses.

💡 Key Takeaway

Psychotic disorders, primarily schizophrenia, involve complex neurobiological and environmental factors leading to distorted perceptions and beliefs; effective management hinges on early diagnosis, antipsychotic therapy, and comprehensive psychosocial support.

📖 5. Personality Disorders

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Personality Disorder (PD): An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from cultural expectations, is inflexible, and leads to distress or impairment. Typically begins in adolescence or early adulthood.

• Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric): Includes Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders; characterized by suspiciousness, social detachment, and eccentric behaviors.

• Cluster B (Dramatic/Erratic): Includes Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, and Narcissistic Personality Disorders; marked by emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and attention-seeking behaviors.

• Cluster C (Anxious/Fearful): Includes Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders; characterized by anxiety, fear of abandonment, and perfectionism.

• Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD): A PD characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, and affect, with impulsivity and fear of abandonment.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): A PD marked by a disregard for others’ rights, deceitfulness, impulsivity, and lack of remorse, often associated with criminal behavior.

📝 Essential Points

• Diagnosis Criteria: Based on persistent patterns of behavior that deviate from cultural norms, causing significant distress or impairment, typically lasting over a year.

• Etiology: Multifactorial, involving genetic predisposition, childhood trauma, and environmental influences. BPD is often linked to early trauma and invalidating environments.

• Treatment Approaches:

  • Psychotherapy: Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is effective for BPD; Mentalization-Based Therapy (MBT) and Schema Therapy are also used.
  • Pharmacotherapy: No medications specifically approved; used to manage comorbid symptoms like depression or anxiety.

• Differential Diagnosis: Important to distinguish PDs from other mental disorders and consider comorbidities such as mood or anxiety disorders.

• Prognosis: Varies; some PDs, like Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, tend to be more stable, while Borderline PD may improve with therapy.

💡 Key Takeaway

Personality disorders are complex, enduring patterns of maladaptive behavior and cognition that significantly impair functioning; effective management relies primarily on specialized psychotherapy, with an understanding of their clustering and underlying etiology.

📖 6. Eating Disorders

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by self-imposed starvation, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted body image, leading to significantly low body weight.
• Bulimia Nervosa: An eating disorder marked by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, laxative use, or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.
• Binge Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of consuming large quantities of food in a short period, accompanied by feelings of loss of control, without regular compensatory behaviors.
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): A psychological disorder involving obsessive focus on perceived flaws in physical appearance, often associated with eating disorders.
• Amenorrhea: The absence of menstruation, often seen in females with anorexia nervosa due to hormonal disturbances.
• Refeeding Syndrome: A potentially fatal shift in fluids and electrolytes that may occur in malnourished individuals when reintroduced to nutrition.

📝 Essential Points

• Diagnostic Criteria: Anorexia involves restriction of food intake leading to low BMI; bulimia involves cycles of bingeing and purging. Both often feature distorted body image.
• Physical Complications: Electrolyte imbalances, cardiac arrhythmias, osteoporosis, amenorrhea, and gastrointestinal issues are common.
• Psychological Factors: Perfectionism, low self-esteem, and societal pressures contribute to development.
• Comorbidities: Frequently co-occurs with depression, anxiety, and personality disorders.
• Treatment Approaches: Multidisciplinary management including nutritional rehabilitation, psychotherapy (CBT, family therapy), and pharmacotherapy (e.g., SSRIs for bulimia).
• Prognosis: Chronic course with potential for severe physical and psychological consequences; early intervention improves outcomes.

💡 Key Takeaway

Eating disorders are complex psychiatric conditions with significant physical health risks and psychological factors; effective management requires a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach emphasizing both medical stabilization and psychological therapy.

📖 7. Etiology Factors

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Genetic Factors: Hereditary influences that increase susceptibility to mental health disorders, evidenced by familial aggregation and twin studies. Example: Schizophrenia heritability estimated at 80%.
• Biological Factors: Neurochemical imbalances (e.g., serotonin, dopamine), brain structural abnormalities, and neurodevelopmental issues contributing to mental disorders.
• Environmental Factors: External influences such as trauma, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), stress, and socioeconomic status that impact mental health risk.
• Psychological Factors: Cognitive patterns, maladaptive coping mechanisms, and personality traits that influence the development and course of mental illnesses.
• Multifactorial Etiology: The concept that mental health disorders typically result from an interplay of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors.

📝 Essential Points

• Most mental disorders have complex, multifactorial etiologies rather than a single cause.
• Genetic predisposition increases vulnerability but often requires environmental triggers for disorder manifestation.
• Neurotransmitter dysregulation (e.g., serotonin in depression) is a common biological underpinning.
• Early life stressors and trauma significantly elevate the risk of developing disorders like PTSD, depression, and anxiety.
• Understanding etiology aids in personalized treatment approaches and prevention strategies.

💡 Key Takeaway

Mental health disorders arise from a complex interaction of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors, making their etiology multifaceted and individualized.

📖 8. Assessment Methods

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Clinical Interview: A structured or semi-structured conversation between a clinician and patient to gather comprehensive information about mental health symptoms, history, and functioning, forming the basis for diagnosis.

• Psychological Testing: Standardized assessments (e.g., Beck Depression Inventory, MMPI) used to quantify symptoms, personality traits, or cognitive functioning, aiding in diagnosis and treatment planning.

• Diagnostic Criteria: Specific symptom patterns and duration outlined in manuals like DSM-5, used to establish a mental disorder diagnosis.

• Assessment Tools: Instruments such as questionnaires, rating scales, and interviews designed to evaluate mental health status objectively and reliably.

• Differential Diagnosis: The process of distinguishing a particular mental disorder from other conditions with similar symptoms, ensuring accurate diagnosis.

• Observation & Collateral Information: Gathering data through direct observation and reports from family or caregivers to supplement patient self-report, especially when insight is limited.

📝 Essential Points

• Accurate assessment combines clinical interviews, psychological tests, and collateral information to ensure comprehensive understanding.
• Diagnostic criteria from DSM-5 guide clinicians in establishing specific mental health diagnoses.
• Standardized assessment tools improve reliability and validity of evaluations.
• Differential diagnosis is critical to exclude medical conditions or substance use that mimic psychiatric disorders.
• Observation and collateral reports are especially important in cases of limited insight, children, or individuals with communication difficulties.
• Assessment is an ongoing process; re-evaluation may be necessary to monitor progress or clarify diagnoses.

💡 Key Takeaway

Effective assessment in psychiatry integrates clinical interviews, standardized tools, collateral information, and diagnostic criteria to accurately identify mental health disorders and inform appropriate treatment strategies.

📖 9. Psychotherapy Approaches

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Psychotherapy: A treatment method involving psychological techniques to help individuals understand and change their behavior, thoughts, and emotions to improve mental health.
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A structured, short-term psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and modifying negative thought patterns and behaviors contributing to mental disorders.
• Psychodynamic Therapy: An approach rooted in psychoanalysis that explores unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, and emotional processes influencing current behavior.
• Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, focusing on the individual's capacity for self-healing through empathy and unconditional positive regard.
• Behavioral Therapy: Uses learning principles (e.g., conditioning, reinforcement) to change maladaptive behaviors.
• Group Therapy: A form of psychotherapy involving multiple patients working through issues collectively, facilitated by a therapist.

📝 Essential Points

• Different psychotherapy approaches are selected based on the disorder, patient preference, and therapist expertise.
• CBT is evidence-based and effective for anxiety, depression, and OCD.
• Psychodynamic therapy is longer-term and useful for personality disorders and deep-seated emotional issues.
• Humanistic therapies, like client-centered therapy, foster self-awareness and personal growth.
• Behavioral therapy is particularly effective for phobias, habits, and certain anxiety disorders.
• Group therapy provides social support and is beneficial for conditions like substance use disorders and depression.
• Combining psychotherapy with pharmacotherapy often yields better outcomes.
• The therapist’s role varies: from active instructor (CBT) to empathetic listener (humanistic).

💡 Key Takeaway

Psychotherapy encompasses diverse approaches tailored to individual needs, with evidence-based methods like CBT playing a central role in modern mental health treatment, while psychodynamic and humanistic therapies address deeper emotional and personal growth aspects.

📖 10. Pharmacotherapy Options

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Antidepressants: Medications that primarily treat depression by modulating neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Examples include SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs.
• Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): A class of antidepressants that increase serotonin levels by inhibiting its reuptake in the synaptic cleft. Common SSRIs include fluoxetine, sertraline, and citalopram.
• Antipsychotics: Drugs used to manage psychotic symptoms by blocking dopamine receptors. They are classified as typical (first-generation) and atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics.
• Mood Stabilizers: Medications that control mood swings, especially in bipolar disorder. Lithium is the most well-known mood stabilizer, effective in reducing manic and depressive episodes.
• Anxiolytics: Medications that reduce anxiety. Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam, lorazepam) are fast-acting but have dependency risks; SSRIs are also used for anxiety disorders.
• Pharmacokinetics & Side Effects: Understanding drug absorption, metabolism, and excretion is crucial, along with common adverse effects such as weight gain, sedation, or extrapyramidal symptoms.

📝 Essential Points

• Pharmacotherapy is often combined with psychotherapy for optimal treatment outcomes.
• Choice of medication depends on the specific disorder, symptom profile, side effect considerations, and patient comorbidities.
• SSRIs are first-line treatments for depression and many anxiety disorders due to their favorable side effect profile.
• Antipsychotics are essential for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder; atypical antipsychotics tend to have fewer extrapyramidal side effects but may cause metabolic syndrome.
• Lithium requires regular blood level monitoring due to narrow therapeutic index and potential toxicity.
• Medications like benzodiazepines are effective for acute anxiety but are recommended for short-term use due to dependency risk.
• Awareness of drug interactions and contraindications is vital to prevent adverse events.

💡 Key Takeaway

Pharmacotherapy options in psychiatry are diverse and tailored to individual disorders, requiring careful consideration of efficacy, side effects, and patient-specific factors to optimize mental health treatment.

📖 11. Emerging Treatments

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Neurostimulation Techniques: Non-invasive or invasive methods that modulate brain activity to treat mental health disorders. Examples include Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS).
• Pharmacogenomics: The study of how genetic variations influence individual responses to medications, enabling personalized psychiatric treatment.
• Ketamine Therapy: Use of ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, administered in controlled settings for rapid relief of depression, especially treatment-resistant cases.
• Digital Psychiatry: Integration of digital tools such as mobile apps, telepsychiatry, and virtual reality to enhance diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment.
• Psychobiotics: Probiotics and prebiotics aimed at modulating gut microbiota to influence mental health, based on the gut-brain axis concept.
• Gene Therapy: Experimental approach involving modification of genes to correct or alter dysfunctional neural pathways implicated in mental disorders.

📝 Essential Points

• Emerging treatments focus on neurobiological mechanisms, aiming for faster, more targeted interventions.
• TMS and DBS are promising for treatment-resistant depression and OCD, with TMS being FDA-approved for depression.
• Pharmacogenomics allows for personalized medication plans, reducing adverse effects and improving efficacy.
• Ketamine has revolutionized depression treatment due to its rapid antidepressant effects, though long-term safety is under study.
• Digital psychiatry enhances access to care, especially via telepsychiatry, and utilizes virtual reality for exposure therapy.
• Gut microbiota modulation (psychobiotics) represents a novel, adjunctive approach based on the gut-brain axis.
• Gene therapy remains experimental but holds potential for future personalized interventions by targeting specific genetic pathways.

💡 Key Takeaway

Emerging treatments in psychiatry leverage advances in neurotechnology, genetics, and digital health to offer faster, personalized, and more effective options, transforming the future landscape of mental health care.

📖 12. Psychiatrist's Role

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Psychiatrist: A medical doctor (MD or DO) specialized in diagnosing, treating, and preventing mental health disorders, capable of prescribing medications and conducting psychotherapy.

• Diagnosis: The process of identifying a mental health disorder based on clinical evaluation, patient history, and diagnostic criteria such as DSM-5.

• Pharmacotherapy: The use of medications prescribed by psychiatrists to manage symptoms of mental health disorders, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and mood stabilizers.

• Psychotherapy: A therapeutic intervention involving talking with patients to explore thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, including modalities like CBT and psychodynamic therapy.

• Multidisciplinary Collaboration: The coordinated effort between psychiatrists and other mental health professionals (psychologists, social workers, nurses) to provide comprehensive patient care.

• Stigma Reduction: The psychiatrist's role in educating the public and patients to combat misconceptions and discrimination related to mental illness.

📝 Essential Points

• Psychiatrists are uniquely qualified to integrate biological, psychological, and social factors in diagnosis and treatment planning.
• They prescribe medications, conduct psychotherapy, and oversee overall mental health management.
• Psychiatrists often collaborate with a multidisciplinary team to optimize patient outcomes.
• They play a vital role in patient education, advocacy, and reducing stigma associated with mental health disorders.
• Assessment involves clinical interviews, psychological testing, and application of DSM-5 criteria.
• Treatment approaches are tailored to individual needs, combining pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy.
• Psychiatrists contribute to research efforts to improve understanding and treatment of mental illnesses.

💡 Key Takeaway

Psychiatrists are central to mental health care, combining medical expertise with therapeutic skills to diagnose, treat, and advocate for patients, ultimately aiming to improve mental well-being and reduce societal stigma.

📊 Synthesis Tables

Aspect	Anxiety Disorders	Mood Disorders
Core Features	Excessive fear/worry, physiological symptoms	Mood disturbances: depression or mania/hypomania
Common Conditions	GAD, panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety	MDD, bipolar I & II, dysthymia
Neurobiology	GABA, serotonin, norepinephrine dysregulation	Serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine imbalance
Treatment	CBT, SSRIs, benzodiazepines (short-term)	Pharmacotherapy (SSRIs, mood stabilizers), psychotherapy
Typical Duration	Often episodic, chronic in some cases	Episodic, recurrent, or chronic

Aspect	Psychotic Disorders	Personality Disorders
Core Features	Loss of reality, hallucinations, delusions	Enduring maladaptive patterns affecting functioning
Main Disorder Examples	Schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder	Borderline, antisocial, narcissistic, avoidant
Neurobiology	Dopamine dysregulation	Complex, involves temperament, environment
Treatment	Antipsychotics, psychosocial interventions	Psychotherapy (DBT, CBT), sometimes medication
Course	Usually chronic, episodic in some cases	Persistent, pervasive patterns

⚠️ Common Pitfalls & Confusions

1. Confusing generalized anxiety disorder with normal stress responses.
2. Overlooking comorbidities between mood and anxiety disorders.
3. Misdiagnosing bipolar depression as unipolar depression.
4. Mistaking psychotic symptoms for severe mood or personality disorders.
5. Ignoring medical or substance-induced causes of psychiatric symptoms.
6. Assuming all personality disorders are fixed traits; some may change with therapy.
7. Confusing dysthymia with major depression—duration and severity differ.
8. Overreliance on medication without considering psychotherapy.
9. Misinterpreting cultural or religious beliefs as delusions.
10. Overlooking early signs of psychosis in at-risk patients.
11. Confusing specific phobias with social anxiety disorder.
12. Underestimating the importance of functional impairment in diagnosis.

✅ Exam Checklist

• Define DSM-5 and differentiate between categorical and dimensional classification.
• List key features of anxiety disorders, including GAD, panic disorder, and phobias.
• Describe the neurobiological basis of anxiety and mood disorders.
• Identify primary symptoms and diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder.
• Recognize core symptoms of schizophrenia and distinguish positive vs. negative symptoms.
• Explain the role of neurotransmitters in psychotic and mood disorders.
• Outline first-line treatments for anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders.
• Discuss the common features and treatment approaches for personality disorders.
• Describe assessment methods used in psychiatric diagnosis.
• Summarize emerging treatments and their potential benefits.
• Clarify the psychiatrist’s role in diagnosis, treatment planning, and ongoing management.
• Differentiate between medical and psychiatric causes of mental health symptoms.