What does child development describe and explain?
Changes in children's physical, social, emotional, language, and cognitive functioning over time.
What distinguishes development from growth?
Development includes progressive, orderly, and long-lasting quantitative and qualitative changes in structure and function, unlike growth.
What is growth in the context of development?
The measurable quantitative increase in body size, weight, height, and internal organs.
What age range does infancy cover?
From birth to two years.
What marks infancy besides its age range?
Total dependence on caregivers and the most rapid growth and development after birth.
What age range defines childhood?
From two to twelve years.
How is childhood subdivided?
Into early childhood (two to six years) and middle childhood (six to twelve years).
When does adolescence begin and what are its key features?
It begins around twelve years with puberty (eleven to fourteen years), involving rapid height and weight increases and secondary sexual characteristics.
What does physical development refer to?
Changes in size, structure, and proportions of body parts from conception onward.
Which muscles does gross-motor development use?
Large muscles of the arms and legs.
Which muscles does fine-motor development use?
Small muscles of the hands and fingers.
What is cognitive development?
The process of mental development involving gathering and processing information.
What does social-emotional development combine?
Learning to relate to others with developing and expressing feelings.
What does the cephalocaudal principle state?
Development proceeds from the head downward.
What does the proximodistal principle state?
Development proceeds from the body’s center outward.
What does heredity establish in development?
Biological potentials and limits.
How does environment influence development?
It affects the speed and direction of potential development.
What does the transactional model explain about development?
Development is a continuous process where child and environment change each other.
What does nature refer to in development?
Genetically inherited characteristics.
What does nurture refer to in development?
The influence of environmental experience.
Who studied identical twins raised in different environments?
Newman, Freeman and Holzinger.
What did Woodworth (1941) conclude about environmental differences and IQ?
Environmental differences produce IQ differences smaller than those from heredity.
What is socialisation?
A deliberate and conscious process where children learn societal values and rules.
Who are important agents of socialisation?
Parents, family, teachers, elders, peers, media, day-care, schools, and religion.
Why are peer groups influential in middle childhood?
Children learn teamwork, sharing, trust, and viewpoint adjustment with peers.
How do parents socialize children?
By modeling behavior, approving or disapproving actions, arranging environments, and teaching manners and skills.
How does maturationist theory view development?
As an automatic biological process in predictable sequential stages.
What does environmentalist theory say about behaviour and learning?
They are reactions to the environment.
How does constructivist theory view children's learning?
Children learn through active interaction with people and surroundings.
Who advanced maturationist theory?
Arnold Gesell.
Which theorists contributed to the environmentalist perspective?
John Watson, B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.
Who advanced the constructivist perspective on child development?
Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, and Lev Vygotsky.
What does Erikson's psychosocial theory state about development?
Development occurs throughout the life span with personality developing through social and emotional growth.
Which stage covers trust versus mistrust in Erikson's childhood stages?
From birth to eighteen months.
Which stage covers autonomy versus shame and doubt in Erikson's childhood stages?
From eighteen months to three years.
What kind of care helps infants develop trust according to Erikson?
Warm, consistent, predictable, attentive care.
What does an unpredictable environment and harsh handling produce in infants?
Mistrust.
What promotes independence during autonomy versus shame and doubt?
Supportive opportunities for self-feeding, toileting, dressing, and exploration.
What results from overprotection or insufficient activities during autonomy versus shame and doubt?
Self-doubt, poor achievement, and shame.
Who developed the psychosocial theory stating personality develops through social and emotional growth?
Erik Erikson.
What does child-centered education treat learners as?
Active participants who help decide learning content, activities, and pace.
What roles do teachers play in child-centered education?
They help learners set goals, assess, cooperate, and use resources.
What is the aim of progressive education?
To make schools effective democratic agencies respecting diversity and critical intelligence.
Which learning approaches does progressive education emphasize?
Child-centered, hands-on, experiential, theme-based, and inquiry learning.
What type of assessment does progressive education emphasize?
Authentic and holistic assessment.
What does progressive education prioritize in learning outcomes?
Learning through process rather than product.
What does progressive education develop in students?
Active participation, respect for diversity, and critical socially engaged intelligence.
Which two educational approaches does progressive education link?
Child-centered education and social reconstruction.
Who linked child-centered education with social reconstruction?
John Dewey.
When did the term progressive arise in America?
During roughly 1890–1920.
What was John Dewey's role at the University of Chicago?
He worked in his Laboratory School testing educational ideas.
With whom did John Dewey share ideas at his Laboratory School?
Francis W. Parker and Ella Flagg Young.
When was the Progressive Education Association founded?
In 1919.
What does progressive education base its curriculum on?
Children's interests.
How do children learn in progressive education?
Through integrated theme-based units or inquiry projects.
What type of assessment does progressive education use?
Authentic and holistic narrative reports.
What does progressive education usually use instead of ability grouping?
Mixed-age classes.
What does the developmental approach say about each child's learning pace?
Each child unfolds at an individual pace according to a specific pattern.
What does progressive education emphasize more: the learning process or the final product?
The learning process.
What social benefit does mixed-age classes encourage in progressive education?
Cross-age friendships.
According to the developmental approach, is all learning appropriate at every stage?
No, some learning is appropriate only at certain developmental stages.
What does humanistic progressivism focus on?
The humanities, arts, and social sciences.
What is the goal of humanistic progressivism?
To develop a well-rounded individual with critical thinking and social skills.
What is constructivism in progressive education?
Child-centered learning where learners construct knowledge through creativity and experience.
Who is associated with constructivism?
Jean Piaget.
How does curriculum function in constructivism?
It follows learners' interests and developmental stages.
What characterizes Montessori education?
Children learn naturally through self-directed activity in a sensory-rich environment.
Who founded Montessori education?
Maria Montessori.
What role do teachers play in Montessori education?
They facilitate rather than dominate the learning process.
How are learners characterized in child-centered education?
Learners are active rather than passive recipients.
What choices may learners make in child-centered education?
Learners may decide what to learn, which activities to use, and at what pace.
What role do teachers play in child-centered education?
Teachers help students set achievable goals, assess themselves and peers, work cooperatively, and use learning resources.
What is intelligence according to Stoddard and Wechsler?
The global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.
Which author described intelligence as involving difficult, complex, and abstract activities?
Stoddard
What kind of activities did Stoddard say intelligent activities require?
Concentrated energy and resistance to emotional forces.
How is intelligence displayed according to the individual's behaviour?
As goal-directed behaviour involving adjustment to abnormal and challenging situations.
Test your knowledge with 52 questions on Progressive Education and Intelligence.
1. Which description best defines child development?
2. A child’s height increases while the child also develops new reasoning and language abilities. Which distinction best describes these changes?
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