Ficha de revisão: Fundamentals of Mammalian and Avian Respiratory Physiology

📋 Course Outline

1. Functions and comparative anatomy of the respiratory system
2. Structure and components of the mammalian respiratory apparatus
3. Mechanics, physical properties, and airway resistance in mammalian breathing
4. Airway resistance and neural control of bronchial smooth muscle
5. Spirometry and lung volumes in different mammalian species
6. Pulmonary and bronchial circulation and blood flow regulation
7. Comparative respiratory anatomy and ventilation in birds
8. Gill structure and ventilation mechanisms in fishes
9. Gas exchange, oxygen transport, and hemoglobin affinity
10. Carbon dioxide transport and diffusion in blood
11. Neural and chemical control mechanisms of breathing
12. Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs including defense and metabolism

📖 1. Functions and comparative anatomy of the respiratory system

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• External respiration : The movement of gases between the environment and the body’s cells, specifically the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the blood.
• Homeostatic regulation of body pH : The process by which the respiratory system maintains blood pH balance through regulation of carbon dioxide levels.
• Respiratory epithelium : The tissue lining the respiratory airways that provides protection against inhaled pathogens and irritating substances.
• Vocal cords : Structures within the respiratory system that enable vocalization.
• Water and heat loss : The facilitation of water and heat loss by the respiratory system as part of homeostatic compensations.

📝 Essential Points

• The respiratory system exchanges gases between atmosphere and blood, primarily oxygen intake and carbon dioxide expulsion.
• The respiratory system contributes to vocalization via vocal cords.
• Respiratory system participates in homeostatic regulation of body pH by balancing CO2 levels.

💡 Key Takeaway

Understanding the multifaceted roles of the respiratory system beyond gas exchange highlights its integrative physiological importance.

📖 2. Structure and components of the mammalian respiratory apparatus

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Conducting system : The portion of the respiratory apparatus responsible for warming, humidifying, and filtering inspired air before it reaches the alveoli.
• Respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium 2Structure : The tissue lining the airways that contributes to the defense and conditioning of inspired air.
• Structure of the respiratory apparatus : Mammals 2The Respiratory System Structure of the respiratory apparatus The Airway Pathobiome in Complex Respiratory Diseases: A Perspective in Domestic Animals.

📝 Essential Points

• Anatomic dead space in mammals is approximately 150 mL where no gas exchange occurs.
• Respiratory epithelium lines the airways and contributes to defense and conditioning of inspired air.

💡 Key Takeaway

Detailed knowledge of mammalian respiratory structures is essential to understand how air is conditioned and delivered for efficient gas exchange.

📖 3. Mechanics, physical properties, and airway resistance in mammalian breathing

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Boyle’s law : A physical principle that explains pulmonary ventilation, stating that the volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure when temperature is constant.
• Surface tension : A physical property caused by a thin fluid layer between air and alveolar cells, which increases the work of breathing by resisting alveolar expansion.
• 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties : Attributes such as compliance and elastance that determine lung expandability and recoil during breathing.
• 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance : The opposition to airflow in the respiratory system, influenced by airway radius and resistance factors described by Poiseuille’s equation.

📝 Essential Points

• Compliance measures lung expandability as change in volume per unit pressure (△V/△P).
• Elastance is the reciprocal of compliance, indicating the lung’s ability to recoil to its original shape.
• Surface tension in alveoli increases work of breathing due to fluid layer between air and alveolar cells.
• Surfactant reduces alveolar surface tension, facilitating lung inflation.

💡 Key Takeaway

The physical principles and properties governing lung mechanics are fundamental to understanding normal and pathological breathing.

📖 4. Airway resistance and neural control of bronchial smooth muscle

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Breathing mechanism : physiological process involving airflow regulation through airway resistance, influenced by neural and physical factors.
• Breathing mechanism Physical properties : characteristics such as airway resistance, compliance, and elastance that determine the ease of lung expansion and airflow dynamics.

📝 Essential Points

• Airway resistance is determined by airway radius to the fourth power according to Poiseuille’s equation, meaning small changes in radius significantly affect resistance.
• Parasympathetic stimulation via muscarinic receptors causes bronchoconstriction, increasing airway resistance.
• Sympathetic stimulation via β2 receptors causes bronchodilatation, decreasing airway resistance.
• Adrenergic nerve fibers innervate bronchial smooth muscle to regulate airway caliber, modulating airflow resistance.
• Asthma involves increased bronchoconstriction, leading to higher airway resistance, and is treated with bronchodilators targeting β2 receptors to induce relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle.

💡 Key Takeaway

Neural regulation of airway smooth muscle plays a critical role in modulating airway resistance, directly impacting respiratory airflow and overall lung function.

📖 5. Spirometry and lung volumes in different mammalian species

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates : An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed.

📝 Essential Points

• Spirometry measures lung volumes and capacities to assess respiratory function.
• Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.
• Inspiratory reserve volume is the additional air inhaled after normal inspiration.
• Expiratory reserve volume is the additional air exhaled after normal expiration.
• Residual volume is the air remaining in the lungs after maximal expiration.

💡 Key Takeaway

Comparative spirometry reveals species-specific respiratory adaptations reflected in lung volume differences.

📖 6. Pulmonary and bronchial circulation and blood flow regulation

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Bronchial circulation : The blood supply that provides nutrients to the airways and large vessels within the lungs, aiding in airway tissue nutrition and conditioning inhaled air.
• Alveolar capillaries : Capillaries that perfuse the alveolar septa, facilitating gas exchange between blood and alveolar air.
• Pulmonary vascular resistance : The resistance to blood flow within the pulmonary vasculature, influenced by neural, humoral factors, and hypoxia-induced constriction.
• Alveolar hypoxia : A condition where low oxygen levels in alveoli cause constriction of small pulmonary arteries, regulating blood flow.

📝 Essential Points

• Pulmonary circulation carries the total output of the right ventricle to alveolar capillaries for gas exchange.
• Pulmonary arteries have thinner walls and less muscle compared to systemic arteries.
• Alveolar hypoxia causes constriction of small pulmonary arteries, regulating blood flow.
• Pulmonary microvasculature filters small particles from blood and accommodates increased flow during exercise.

💡 Key Takeaway

Distinct pulmonary and bronchial circulations coordinate to optimize gas exchange and airway tissue nutrition under varying physiological conditions.

📖 7. Comparative respiratory anatomy and ventilation in birds

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Crosscurrent blood flow : A pattern of blood flow in bird lungs where blood flows perpendicular to the direction of airflow, enhancing oxygen extraction efficiency.
• 2Pulmonary circulation : The circulation of blood through the lungs involving thin-walled alveolar capillaries that perfuse the alveolar septa to facilitate gas exchange.

📝 Essential Points

• Bird lungs separate ventilation and gas exchange via air sacs and parabronchi, with air capillaries providing a large surface area for gas exchange.
• Birds 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of bird lungs ventilation and gas exchange are separated in avian respiratory systems due to air sacs and parabronchi with air capillaries for greater efficiency 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K.

💡 Key Takeaway

Bird lungs separate ventilation and gas exchange via air sacs and parabronchi, with air capillaries providing a large surface area for gas exchange.

📖 8. Gill structure and ventilation mechanisms in fishes

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Cambridge University Press : An academic publishing house that produces authoritative scientific and educational content.

📝 Essential Points

• Fish gills overcome low oxygen availability in water via specialized lamellae structures.
• Flow-through ventilation in fish gills maintains continuous water movement over respiratory surfaces.
• Diffusion limitations in water are compensated by large surface area and countercurrent exchange in gills.

💡 Key Takeaway

Fish respiratory adaptations illustrate solutions to aquatic environmental challenges through specialized gill structures and ventilation.

📖 9. Gas exchange, oxygen transport, and hemoglobin affinity

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve : A graph illustrating the relationship between oxygen partial pressure and hemoglobin saturation, showing how hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen varies with partial pressure.
• Venous O2 transport : The amount of oxygen carried by blood returning to the lungs, determined by venous oxygen content and blood flow.

📝 Essential Points

• Hemoglobin affinity for oxygen is influenced by temperature, pH, CO2, and 2,3-BPG concentration.
• The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve describes how hemoglobin saturation varies with oxygen partial pressure.
• Increased 2,3-BPG levels in chronic hypoxia, anemia, and high altitude reduce hemoglobin's oxygen affinity, aiding oxygen release.

💡 Key Takeaway

Oxygen transport dynamics depend on hemoglobin’s variable affinity, which is modulated by physiological and environmental factors.

📖 10. Carbon dioxide transport and diffusion in blood

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Arterial O2 transport : The amount of oxygen delivered via arterial blood, determined by arterial oxygen content and cardiac output.
• Exchange and transport : Processes involving the diffusion of gases like CO2 and O2 and their transport in blood through various forms.
• 2Diffusion of gases : The movement of gases down partial pressure gradients between tissues, blood, and alveoli, facilitated by diffusion.

📝 Essential Points

• Carbon dioxide is transported in blood dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.
• Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the conversion between CO2 and bicarbonate, facilitating CO2 transport.

💡 Key Takeaway

Efficient carbon dioxide transport and diffusion rely on enzymatic conversion and multiple transport forms in blood.

📖 11. Neural and chemical control mechanisms of breathing

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Respiratory group : Brainstem centers such as the PRG, DRG, and VRG that coordinate neural signals to regulate breathing.
• 2Breathing mechanism : The process of ventilation involving inhalation and exhalation controlled by neural centers and mechanical actions of the respiratory system.
• Functions of the lungs : Roles of the lungs including gas exchange, defense mechanisms, and fluid exchange.

📝 Essential Points

• Breathing is controlled by brainstem centers including PRG, DRG, and VRG.
• Peripheral chemoreceptors detect blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH changes to modulate ventilation.
• Glomus cells in carotid bodies act as peripheral chemoreceptors.
• Birds lack a diaphragm but have central and peripheral chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors for respiratory control.
• Central and peripheral thermoreceptors and baroreceptors also influence respiratory regulation.

💡 Key Takeaway

Breathing regulation integrates neural centers and chemical sensors to maintain homeostasis under diverse conditions.

📖 12. Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs including defense and metabolism

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Defense mechanisms : The lungs defend against pathogens and irritants through respiratory epithelium and immune cells that trap and eliminate foreign particles.
• Fluid exchange : The pulmonary microvasculature participates in fluid transfer between blood and lung interstitium, maintaining fluid balance.
• Monoamine oxidase : An enzyme in endothelial cells responsible for removing and degrading serotonin in the lungs.
• Functions of the lungs : Beyond gas exchange, lungs perform defense, metabolic, and systemic homeostasis roles, including removal of exogenous toxins and regulation of thermoregulation.

📝 Essential Points

• Lungs provide defense against pathogens and irritants via respiratory epithelium and immune cells.
• Respiratory rate and depth contribute to thermoregulation.

💡 Key Takeaway

The lungs perform vital nonrespiratory roles in defense, metabolism, and systemic homeostasis beyond gas exchange.

🧩 Additional Source Details

1. Study this source detail: Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasRespiratory Physiology 2Table of contents Overview External respiration (ventilation) The respiratory apparatus in mammals Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood flow throu (Source: "Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasRespiratory Physiology 2Table of contents Overview External respiration (ventilation) The respiratory apparatus in mammals Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood flow through the lungs The respiratory apparatus in birds The respiratory apparatus in fishes Internal respiration (gases exchange and")
2. Study this source detail: Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood flow through the lungs The respiratory apparatus in birds The respiratory apparatus in fishes Internal respiration (gases exchange and transport) Control mechanisms of Breathing Nonre (Source: "Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood flow through the lungs The respiratory apparatus in birds The respiratory apparatus in fishes Internal respiration (gases exchange and transport) Control mechanisms of Breathing Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasOverview 2The respiratory system Overview")
3. Study this source detail: in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasOverview 2The respiratory system Overview exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood (O2 intake / CO2 expel) homeostatic regulation of body pH (CO2 balance) protection from (Source: "in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasOverview 2The respiratory system Overview exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood (O2 intake / CO2 expel) homeostatic regulation of body pH (CO2 balance) protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances (respiratory epithelium) vocalization (vocal cords) water and heat loss (homeostatic")
4. Study this source detail: (respiratory epithelium) vocalization (vocal cords) water and heat loss (homeostatic compensations) 2The respiratory system Comparative anatomy of gases exchange 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The (Source: "(respiratory epithelium) vocalization (vocal cords) water and heat loss (homeostatic compensations) 2The respiratory system Comparative anatomy of gases exchange 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative")
5. Study this source detail: Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Respiration movement of gases between the (Source: "Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Respiration movement of gases between the environment and the body’s cells Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation).")
6. Study this source detail: in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). Mammals 2The Respiratory System Structure of the respiratory apparatus The Airway Pathobiome in Complex Respiratory Diseases: A Perspective i (Source: "in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). Mammals 2The Respiratory System Structure of the respiratory apparatus The Airway Pathobiome in Complex Respiratory Diseases: A Perspective in Domestic Animals. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. Sec. Microbiome in Health and Disease. Volume 11 - 2021. link 2The Respiratory")
7. Study this source detail: Sec. Microbiome in Health and Disease. Volume 11 - 2021. link 2The Respiratory System Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Stru (Source: "Sec. Microbiome in Health and Disease. Volume 11 - 2021. link 2The Respiratory System Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Bronchi 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Branching")
8. Study this source detail: of respiratory apparatus Bronchi 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Branching the airways *conducting system responsible for air warming, humidifying and filtering (anatomic dead space ≈ 150mL) 2Structure of respiratory (Source: "of respiratory apparatus Bronchi 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Branching the airways *conducting system responsible for air warming, humidifying and filtering (anatomic dead space ≈ 150mL) 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium")
9. Study this source detail: apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Anatomical differences 2Breathing mechanism Respiratory cycle. Inspiration-expiration mechanism Q = △P/ (Source: "apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Anatomical differences 2Breathing mechanism Respiratory cycle. Inspiration-expiration mechanism Q = △P/R △V/△P Boyle’s law Q = air flow (L/min) △P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H2O) R = airway resistance (cm H2O/L per second) △V =")
10. Study this source detail: △P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H2O) R = airway resistance (cm H2O/L per second) △V = volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspiration 2Inspiration Mechanism 2Inspiration Movements 2Breathing mechanism Expiratio (Source: "△P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H2O) R = airway resistance (cm H2O/L per second) △V = volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspiration 2Inspiration Mechanism 2Inspiration Movements 2Breathing mechanism Expiration 2Expiration Mechanism 2Breathing mechanism Breathing rates Factors: frequency of respiratory cycle depth of inspiration Species")
11. Study this source detail: rates Factors: frequency of respiratory cycle depth of inspiration Species Breaths/min (range) Cat 16-40 Dog 18-34 Horse 10-14 Dairy cow 26-50 2Breathing mechanism Terminology for states of breathing eupnea - normal quie (Source: "rates Factors: frequency of respiratory cycle depth of inspiration Species Breaths/min (range) Cat 16-40 Dog 18-34 Horse 10-14 Dairy cow 26-50 2Breathing mechanism Terminology for states of breathing eupnea - normal quiet breathing dyspnea - difficulty breathing hyperpnea - increase in depth and frequency (notable after physical exertion) polypnea -")
12. Study this source detail: hyperpnea - increase in depth and frequency (notable after physical exertion) polypnea - rapid shallow breathing (panting) similar to hyperpnea in regard to frequency but not in depth tachypnea - excessive rapidity of br (Source: "hyperpnea - increase in depth and frequency (notable after physical exertion) polypnea - rapid shallow breathing (panting) similar to hyperpnea in regard to frequency but not in depth tachypnea - excessive rapidity of breathing bradypnea - abnormal slowness of breathing apnea - transient cessation of breathing 2Breathing mechanism Types of breathing")
13. Study this source detail: apnea - transient cessation of breathing 2Breathing mechanism Types of breathing abdominal breathing -predominate in normal condition - vissible abdominal contraction - protrude during inspiration and recoil during expir (Source: "apnea - transient cessation of breathing 2Breathing mechanism Types of breathing abdominal breathing -predominate in normal condition - vissible abdominal contraction - protrude during inspiration and recoil during expiration intercostal breathing - characterized by pronounced rib movements - painful condition of abdominal (e.g, peritonitis) 2Breathing")
14. Study this source detail: rib movements - painful condition of abdominal (e.g, peritonitis) 2Breathing mechanism Air flow air flows because of pressure gradients flow decreases as resistance of the system increases flow = △P/R 2Breathing mechanis (Source: "rib movements - painful condition of abdominal (e.g, peritonitis) 2Breathing mechanism Air flow air flows because of pressure gradients flow decreases as resistance of the system increases flow = △P/R 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: compliance ventilation depends on ability of lungs to expand normally change of volume (V) that results")
15. Study this source detail: depends on ability of lungs to expand normally change of volume (V) that results from a given force or pressure (P) exerted on the lung: △V/△P Boyle’s law provides foundations for pulmonary ventilation high-compliance lu (Source: "depends on ability of lungs to expand normally change of volume (V) that results from a given force or pressure (P) exerted on the lung: △V/△P Boyle’s law provides foundations for pulmonary ventilation high-compliance lung stretches easily low-compliance lung requires more force to stretch when muscles contract, lungs’ thin exchange epithelium")
16. Study this source detail: more force to stretch when muscles contract, lungs’ thin exchange epithelium expands, held to the inside of the chest wall by the pleural fluid 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: elastance or elastic recoil recipr (Source: "more force to stretch when muscles contract, lungs’ thin exchange epithelium expands, held to the inside of the chest wall by the pleural fluid 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: elastance or elastic recoil reciprocal of compliance ability to resist being deformed ability of a body to return to its original shape when a deforming force is")
17. Study this source detail: ability of a body to return to its original shape when a deforming force is removed high compliance lung has probably lost its elastic tissue and will not return to its resting volume when the stretching force is release (Source: "ability of a body to return to its original shape when a deforming force is removed high compliance lung has probably lost its elastic tissue and will not return to its resting volume when the stretching force is released (low elastance) 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: Breathing work and surface tension air-filled lungs are harder to")
18. Study this source detail: properties: Breathing work and surface tension air-filled lungs are harder to inflate than saline-filled lung tissue itself contributes less to resistance surface tension created by thin fluid layer between the alveolar (Source: "properties: Breathing work and surface tension air-filled lungs are harder to inflate than saline-filled lung tissue itself contributes less to resistance surface tension created by thin fluid layer between the alveolar cells and the air 2Breathing mechanism Surfactant 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance Poiseuille equation espresses factors that")
19. Study this source detail: 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance Poiseuille equation espresses factors that determine resistance R (resistence, mm Hg/mL per min) = 8η (viscosity air)L (length airway) π r (radius airway)4 2Breathing mechanism Air (Source: "2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance Poiseuille equation espresses factors that determine resistance R (resistence, mm Hg/mL per min) = 8η (viscosity air)L (length airway) π r (radius airway)4 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance changes 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance adrenergic nerve fibers on bronchial smooth muscle parasympathetic")
20. Study this source detail: Airways resistance adrenergic nerve fibers on bronchial smooth muscle parasympathetic stimulation muscarinic receptors constriction of bronchial smooth muscle (bronchoconstriction) asthma and response to irritants sympat (Source: "Airways resistance adrenergic nerve fibers on bronchial smooth muscle parasympathetic stimulation muscarinic receptors constriction of bronchial smooth muscle (bronchoconstriction) asthma and response to irritants sympathetic stimulation β 2 receptors relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle (bronchodilatation) treatment of asthma 2Breathing mechanism")
21. Study this source detail: smooth muscle (bronchodilatation) treatment of asthma 2Breathing mechanism Evaluation: spirometry 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes and lung capacity 2Breathing mechanism Absolute lung volumes Stahl (1967). Scaling of re (Source: "smooth muscle (bronchodilatation) treatment of asthma 2Breathing mechanism Evaluation: spirometry 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes and lung capacity 2Breathing mechanism Absolute lung volumes Stahl (1967). Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. Journal of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.3.453")
22. Study this source detail: of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.3.453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). Measurement of the respiratory volumes of laboratory animals. The American jo (Source: "of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.3.453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). Measurement of the respiratory volumes of laboratory animals. The American journal of physiology, 150(1), 70-77. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1947.150.1.70 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Human")
23. Study this source detail: 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Human Horse TV 500 mL 6000 mL IRV 3000 mL 12000 mL ERV 1000 mL 12000 mL RV 1200 mL 12000 mL FRC 2200 mL 24000 mL VC 4500 mL 30000 mL TLC 5700 mL 42000 mL Bachelor’s Degree in (Source: "2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Human Horse TV 500 mL 6000 mL IRV 3000 mL 12000 mL ERV 1000 mL 12000 mL RV 1200 mL 12000 mL FRC 2200 mL 24000 mL VC 4500 mL 30000 mL TLC 5700 mL 42000 mL Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasBlood flow through the lungs 2Blood flow through the lungs")
24. Study this source detail: I Fernando CánovasBlood flow through the lungs 2Blood flow through the lungs Circulation systems pulmonary circulation. Total output of the right ventricle, perfuses the alveolar capillaries, and participates in gas exch (Source: "I Fernando CánovasBlood flow through the lungs 2Blood flow through the lungs Circulation systems pulmonary circulation. Total output of the right ventricle, perfuses the alveolar capillaries, and participates in gas exchange arteries have thinner walls and less muscle alveolar and extra-alveolar blood vessels offer a low resistance to flow differs")
25. Study this source detail: alveolar and extra-alveolar blood vessels offer a low resistance to flow differs between quadrupeds and bipeds neural and humoral factors cause contraction of pulmonary artery smooth muscle alveolar hypoxia is a potent c (Source: "alveolar and extra-alveolar blood vessels offer a low resistance to flow differs between quadrupeds and bipeds neural and humoral factors cause contraction of pulmonary artery smooth muscle alveolar hypoxia is a potent constrictor of small pulmonary arteries accommodates a large increase in blood flow during exercise microvasculature filters small")
26. Study this source detail: a large increase in blood flow during exercise microvasculature filters small particles from the blood bronchial circulation. Pulmonary vein for nutritional blood supply to airways and other structures within the lung. b (Source: "a large increase in blood flow during exercise microvasculature filters small particles from the blood bronchial circulation. Pulmonary vein for nutritional blood supply to airways and other structures within the lung. blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar")
27. Study this source detail: and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the capillary fluid exchange between the capillary and t (Source: "and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the capillary fluid exchange between the capillary and the interstitium occurs primarily on the thicker side A red blood cell (RBC) is shown bathed by plasma (P) in a capillary surrounded by")
28. Study this source detail: A red blood cell (RBC) is shown bathed by plasma (P) in a capillary surrounded by endothelium (END). Alveoli (ALV) are on both sides of the septum and separated from the capillary by the epithelium (EPI) and a layer of i (Source: "A red blood cell (RBC) is shown bathed by plasma (P) in a capillary surrounded by endothelium (END). Alveoli (ALV) are on both sides of the septum and separated from the capillary by the epithelium (EPI) and a layer of interstitium (I) WS Tyler, Department of Anatomy, University of California–Davis 2Pulmonary circulation Extra-alveolar capillaries")
29. Study this source detail: University of California–Davis 2Pulmonary circulation Extra-alveolar capillaries 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary vascular resistance 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary blood flow 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary blood flo (Source: "University of California–Davis 2Pulmonary circulation Extra-alveolar capillaries 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary vascular resistance 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary blood flow 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary blood flow alterations sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation largely determined by the amount of smooth muscle neural and humoral factors")
30. Study this source detail: largely determined by the amount of smooth muscle neural and humoral factors can contract or relax pulmonary vascular smooth muscle hypoxia is a potent constrictor 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary microvasculature filter (Source: "largely determined by the amount of smooth muscle neural and humoral factors can contract or relax pulmonary vascular smooth muscle hypoxia is a potent constrictor 2Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary microvasculature filter pulmonary thromboembolism metastasis 2Bronchial circulation blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning")
31. Study this source detail: 2Bronchial circulation blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). Birds 2The Respirator (Source: "2Bronchial circulation blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). Birds 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of bird lungs ventilation and gas exchange are separated in avian respiratory systems due to air sacs and")
32. Study this source detail: and gas exchange are separated in avian respiratory systems due to air sacs and parabronchi with air capillaries for greater efficiency 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridg (Source: "and gas exchange are separated in avian respiratory systems due to air sacs and parabronchi with air capillaries for greater efficiency 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge")
33. Study this source detail: mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the (Source: "mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 2 K.")
34. Study this source detail: ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 2 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed. Belmont, (Source: "ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 2 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Flow-through breathing plus crosscurrent blood flow Modified from P. Scheid.")
35. Study this source detail: mechanism Flow-through breathing plus crosscurrent blood flow Modified from P. Scheid. (1979). Mechanisms of gas exchange in bird lungs. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 86:137-186. Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physi (Source: "mechanism Flow-through breathing plus crosscurrent blood flow Modified from P. Scheid. (1979). Mechanisms of gas exchange in bird lungs. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 86:137-186. Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). Fishes 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of fish gills less O2")
36. Study this source detail: Fishes 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of fish gills less O2 than air and limitations of diffusion in water are overcome with gills and flow-through breathing Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fern (Source: "Fishes 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of fish gills less O2 than air and limitations of diffusion in water are overcome with gills and flow-through breathing Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasInternal respiration (gases exchange and transport) 2Diffusion of gases Gas exchange and transport arterial")
37. Study this source detail: exchange and transport) 2Diffusion of gases Gas exchange and transport arterial venous PO2 95 mm Hg 40 mm Hg (85-100) PCO2 40 mm Hg 46 mm Hg (35-45) pH 7.4 7.37 (7.38-7.42) 2Diffusion of gases Pressure gradients 2Diffusi (Source: "exchange and transport) 2Diffusion of gases Gas exchange and transport arterial venous PO2 95 mm Hg 40 mm Hg (85-100) PCO2 40 mm Hg 46 mm Hg (35-45) pH 7.4 7.37 (7.38-7.42) 2Diffusion of gases Pressure gradients 2Diffusion of gases Diffusion barrier 2Diffusion of gases Oxygen O2 2Oxygen Oxygen in plasma 2Oxygen Oxygen in blood 2Oxygen Hemoglobin 98% O2")
38. Study this source detail: Oxygen O2 2Oxygen Oxygen in plasma 2Oxygen Oxygen in blood 2Oxygen Hemoglobin 98% O2 bound to hemoglobin in erythrocytes, and less than 2% dissolved in plasma 2Oxygen Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve Modified from Boron (Source: "Oxygen O2 2Oxygen Oxygen in plasma 2Oxygen Oxygen in blood 2Oxygen Hemoglobin 98% O2 bound to hemoglobin in erythrocytes, and less than 2% dissolved in plasma 2Oxygen Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve Modified from Boron WF, Boulpaep EL: Medical Physiology, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations")
39. Study this source detail: Philadelphia, 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol. 1979;46(3):599-602 2Oxygen Affinity of hemoglobin for O2 temperature (Source: "Philadelphia, 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol. 1979;46(3):599-602 2Oxygen Affinity of hemoglobin for O2 temperature pH CO2 CO partial pressure 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) concentration (chronic hypoxia, anemia, and acclimation to high altitude)")
40. Study this source detail: (2,3-BPG) concentration (chronic hypoxia, anemia, and acclimation to high altitude) 2Oxygen Mass balance and blood flow Mass balance arterial O2 transport − QO2 = venous O2 transport ⇓ QO2 = arterial O2 transport − venou (Source: "(2,3-BPG) concentration (chronic hypoxia, anemia, and acclimation to high altitude) 2Oxygen Mass balance and blood flow Mass balance arterial O2 transport − QO2 = venous O2 transport ⇓ QO2 = arterial O2 transport − venous O2 transport Mass flow O2 transport = Cardiac Ourput CO (L blood/min) ∗ O2 concentration (mL O2/L blood) Fick equation (CO ∗ arterial")
41. Study this source detail: Ourput CO (L blood/min) ∗ O2 concentration (mL O2/L blood) Fick equation (CO ∗ arterial [O2]) − (CO ∗ venous [O2] = QO2 ⇓ QO2 = CO ∗ (arterial [O2] − venous [O2]) = 2Oxygen Total blood content *2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2, (Source: "Ourput CO (L blood/min) ∗ O2 concentration (mL O2/L blood) Fick equation (CO ∗ arterial [O2]) − (CO ∗ venous [O2] = QO2 ⇓ QO2 = CO ∗ (arterial [O2] − venous [O2]) = 2Oxygen Total blood content *2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), a compound made from an intermediate of the glycolysis pathway 2Diffusion of gases Carbon dioxide CO2 2Carbon dioxide Transport CA")
42. Study this source detail: glycolysis pathway 2Diffusion of gases Carbon dioxide CO2 2Carbon dioxide Transport CA = carbonic anhydrase Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasControl Mechanisms of Breathing 2Breathing control (Source: "glycolysis pathway 2Diffusion of gases Carbon dioxide CO2 2Carbon dioxide Transport CA = carbonic anhydrase Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasControl Mechanisms of Breathing 2Breathing control Ventilation control PRG = Pontine respiratory group; DRG = Dorsal respiratory group VRG = Ventral respiratory group; NTS = Nucleus")
43. Study this source detail: group; DRG = Dorsal respiratory group VRG = Ventral respiratory group; NTS = Nucleus tractus solitarius 2Breathing control Glomus cell 2Breathing control Chemoreceptor 2Breathing control Breathing control 2Breathing cont (Source: "group; DRG = Dorsal respiratory group VRG = Ventral respiratory group; NTS = Nucleus tractus solitarius 2Breathing control Glomus cell 2Breathing control Chemoreceptor 2Breathing control Breathing control 2Breathing control Birds no diaphragm nor phrenic nerve assumed a central respiratory control center in the brain control similar to mammals: central and")
44. Study this source detail: central respiratory control center in the brain control similar to mammals: central and peripheral extrapulmonary chemoreceptors intrapulmonary chemoreceptors (IPC) peripheral mechanoreceptors, sensitive to inflation (ai (Source: "central respiratory control center in the brain control similar to mammals: central and peripheral extrapulmonary chemoreceptors intrapulmonary chemoreceptors (IPC) peripheral mechanoreceptors, sensitive to inflation (air sacs) arterial and carotid baroreceptors (base of the aorta and common carotid artery) central and peripheral thermoreceptors Bachelor’s")
45. Study this source detail: of the aorta and common carotid artery) central and peripheral thermoreceptors Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasNonrespiratory functions of the lungs 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Def (Source: "of the aorta and common carotid artery) central and peripheral thermoreceptors Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasNonrespiratory functions of the lungs 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Defense mechanisms 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Fluid exchange 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions")
46. Study this source detail: lungs Fluid exchange 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions serotonin removed and degraded by monoamine oxidase (endothelial (Source: "lungs Fluid exchange 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions 2Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions serotonin removed and degraded by monoamine oxidase (endothelial cells) norepinephrine removal leukotrienes broken by neutrophils prostaglandins exogenous toxic substances removal thermorregulation")
47. Study this source detail: by neutrophils prostaglandins exogenous toxic substances removal thermorregulation (breathing rate and depth) 2Mackerel skies and mares tails, soon will be time to shorten sails Sailors Proverb 2Bibliography Davis, R.W. (Source: "by neutrophils prostaglandins exogenous toxic substances removal thermorregulation (breathing rate and depth) 2Mackerel skies and mares tails, soon will be time to shorten sails Sailors Proverb 2Bibliography Davis, R.W. (2019) Marine Mammals. Adaptations for an Aquatic Life, First Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland Klein, B.G. (2020) Cunningham’s")
48. Study this source detail: Life, First Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland Klein, B.G. (2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition. Elsevier. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., and Yancey, P.H. (2013) Animal Physiology: From Gen (Source: "Life, First Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland Klein, B.G. (2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition. Elsevier. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., and Yancey, P.H. (2013) Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, Second Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. http://www.youtube.com/@osmosis UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia ©")
49. Study this source detail: Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasRespiratory Physiology 2Table of contents Overview External respiration (ventilation) The respiratory apparatus in mammals Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood (Source: "Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasRespiratory Physiology 2Table of contents Overview External respiration (ventilation) The respiratory apparatus in mammals Breathing mechanism Spirometry Blood flow through the lungs The respiratory apparatus in birds The respiratory apparatus in fishes Internal respiration (gases exchang")
50. Study this source detail: ensations) 2The respiratory system Comparative anatomy of gases exchange 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative (Source: "ensations) 2The respiratory system Comparative anatomy of gases exchange 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative anatomy of lungs 2The Respiratory System Comparative")
51. Study this source detail: link 2The Respiratory System Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of re (Source: "link 2The Respiratory System Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Bronchi 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Branching the airways *conducting system responsible for air warming, hum...")
52. Study this source detail: tem Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus (Source: "tem Structure of the toracic cavity 2The Respiratory System Structure of the diaphragm 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The lungs 2Structure of respiratory apparatus")
53. Study this source detail: Inspiration-expiration mechanism Q = △P/R △V/△P Boyle’s law Q = air flow (L/min) △P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H2O) R = airway resistance (cm H2O/L per second) △V = volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspira (Source: "Inspiration-expiration mechanism Q = △P/R △V/△P Boyle’s law Q = air flow (L/min) △P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H2O) R = airway resistance (cm H2O/L per second) △V = volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspiration 2Inspiration Mechanism 2Inspiration Movements 2Breathing mechanism Expiration 2Expiration Mechanism 2Breathing mechanism Breathing r...")
54. Study this source detail: uiet breathing dyspnea - difficulty breathing hyperpnea - increase in depth and frequency (notable after physical exertion) polypnea - rapid shallow breathing (panting) similar to hyperpnea in regard to frequency but (Source: "uiet breathing dyspnea - difficulty breathing hyperpnea - increase in depth and frequency (notable after physical exertion) polypnea - rapid shallow breathing (panting) similar to hyperpnea in regard to frequency but")
55. Study this source detail: chanism Physical properties: compliance ventilation depends on ability of lungs to expand normally change of volume (V) that results from a given force or pressure (P) exerted on the lung: △V/△P Boyle’s law provides (Source: "chanism Physical properties: compliance ventilation depends on ability of lungs to expand normally change of volume (V) that results from a given force or pressure (P) exerted on the lung: △V/△P Boyle’s law provides")
56. Study this source detail: s, held to the inside of the chest wall by the pleural fluid 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: elastance or elastic recoil reciprocal of compliance ability to resist being deformed ability of a body to return (Source: "s, held to the inside of the chest wall by the pleural fluid 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: elastance or elastic recoil reciprocal of compliance ability to resist being deformed ability of a body to return")
57. Study this source detail: eased (low elastance) 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: Breathing work and surface tension air-filled lungs are harder to inflate than saline-filled lung tissue itself contributes less to resistance surface (Source: "eased (low elastance) 2Breathing mechanism Physical properties: Breathing work and surface tension air-filled lungs are harder to inflate than saline-filled lung tissue itself contributes less to resistance surface")
58. Study this source detail: determine resistance R (resistence, mm Hg/mL per min) = 8η (viscosity air)L (length airway) π r (radius airway)4 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance changes 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance adrenergic nerve (Source: "determine resistance R (resistence, mm Hg/mL per min) = 8η (viscosity air)L (length airway) π r (radius airway)4 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance changes 2Breathing mechanism Airways resistance adrenergic nerve")
59. Study this source detail: aling of respiratory variables in mammals. Journal of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.3.453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). Measurement of the respira (Source: "aling of respiratory variables in mammals. Journal of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.3.453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). Measurement of the respiratory volumes of laboratory animal")
60. Study this source detail: 42000 mL Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasBlood flow through the lungs 2Blood flow through the lungs Circulation systems pulmonary circulation. (Source: "42000 mL Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasBlood flow through the lungs 2Blood flow through the lungs Circulation systems pulmonary circulation.")
61. Study this source detail: blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the capillary (Source: "blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the capillary fluid exchange between the capillary and the interstitium occurs primarily on the thicker side A red blood cell (RBC) is shown ba")
62. Study this source detail: thelium (END). Alveoli (ALV) are on both sides of the septum and separated from the capillary by the epithelium (EPI) and a layer of interstitium (I) WS Tyler, Department of Anatomy, University of California–Davis (Source: "thelium (END). Alveoli (ALV) are on both sides of the septum and separated from the capillary by the epithelium (EPI) and a layer of interstitium (I) WS Tyler, Department of Anatomy, University of California–Davis")
63. Study this source detail: inhaled air Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). (Source: "inhaled air Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation).")
64. Study this source detail: dge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F. (Source: "dge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Inhalation Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. How Animals Work. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 114 pp. 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K. Liem, W. Bemis, W. F.")
65. Study this source detail: 2Breathing mechanism Flow-through breathing plus crosscurrent blood flow Modified from P (Source: "2Breathing mechanism Flow-through breathing plus crosscurrent blood flow Modified from P")
66. Study this source detail: us PO2 95 mm Hg 40 mm Hg (85-100) PCO2 40 mm Hg 46 mm Hg (35-45) pH 7. (Source: "us PO2 95 mm Hg 40 mm Hg (85-100) PCO2 40 mm Hg 46 mm Hg (35-45) pH 7.")
67. Study this source detail: 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol (Source: "2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol")
68. Study this source detail: 1979;46(3):599-602 2Oxygen Affinity of hemoglobin for O2 temperature pH CO2 CO partial pressure 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) concentration (chronic hypoxia, anemia, and acclimation to high altitude) 2Oxygen Mass bal (Source: "1979;46(3):599-602 2Oxygen Affinity of hemoglobin for O2 temperature pH CO2 CO partial pressure 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) concentration (chronic hypoxia, anemia, and acclimation to high altitude) 2Oxygen Mass balance and blood flow Mass balance arterial O2 transport − QO2 = venous O2 transport ⇓")
69. Study this source detail: PG), a compound made from an intermediate of the glycolysis pathway 2Diffusion of gases Carbon dioxide CO2 2Carbon dioxide Transport CA = carbonic anhydrase Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando (Source: "PG), a compound made from an intermediate of the glycolysis pathway 2Diffusion of gases Carbon dioxide CO2 2Carbon dioxide Transport CA = carbonic anhydrase Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando")
70. Study this source detail: acs) arterial and carotid baroreceptors (base of the aorta and common carotid artery) central and peripheral thermoreceptors Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasNonrespiratory functions of the (Source: "acs) arterial and carotid baroreceptors (base of the aorta and common carotid artery) central and peripheral thermoreceptors Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasNonrespiratory functions of the")
71. Study this source detail: Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions serotonin removed and degraded by monoamine oxidase (endothelial cells) norepinephrine removal leukotrienes broken by neutrophils prostaglandins (Source: "Nonrespiratory functions of the lungs Metabolic-related functions serotonin removed and degraded by monoamine oxidase (endothelial cells) norepinephrine removal leukotrienes broken by neutrophils prostaglandins")
72. Study this source detail: 2013) Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, Second Edition (Source: "2013) Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, Second Edition")
73. Study this source detail: 2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition (Source: "2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition")
74. Study this source detail: 2019) Marine Mammals (Source: "2019) Marine Mammals")
75. Study this source detail: nimal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, Second Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. http://www.youtube.com/@osmosis UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia © UCAM (Source: "nimal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms, Second Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. http://www.youtube.com/@osmosis UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia © UCAM")
76. Study this source detail: iratory volumes of laboratory animals. The American journal of physiology, 150(1), 70-77. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1947.150.1.70 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Human Horse TV 500 mL 6000 mL IRV 300 (Source: "iratory volumes of laboratory animals. The American journal of physiology, 150(1), 70-77. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1947.150.1.70 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Human Horse TV 500 mL 6000 mL IRV 3000 mL 12000 mL ERV 1000 mL 12000 mL RV")
77. Study this source detail: em, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Flow-through breathing (Source: "em, W. Bemis, W. F. Walker, & L. Grande. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, p. 594, Figure 18-18. 2Breathing mechanism Flow-through breathing")
78. Study this source detail: WF, Boulpaep EL: Medical Physiology, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol. (Source: "WF, Boulpaep EL: Medical Physiology, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2017, Elsevier, with data from Severinghaus JW: Simple, accurate equations for human blood O2 dissociation computations, J Appl Physiol.")
79. Study this source detail: 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K (Source: "2Breathing mechanism Cycle 1 K")
80. Study this source detail: 2Breathing mechanism Cycle 2 K (Source: "2Breathing mechanism Cycle 2 K")
81. Study this source detail: 19) Marine Mammals. Adaptations for an Aquatic Life, First Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland Klein, B.G. (2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition. Elsevier. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., (Source: "19) Marine Mammals. Adaptations for an Aquatic Life, First Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland Klein, B.G. (2020) Cunningham’s Textbook of Veterinary Physiology, Sixth Edition. Elsevier. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H.,")
82. Study this source detail: = volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspiration 2Inspiration Mechanism 2Inspiration Movements 2Breathing mechanism Expiration 2Expiration Mechanism 2Breathing mechanism Breathing rates Factors: frequency of (Source: "= volumen gradient (L) 2Breathing mechanism Inspiration 2Inspiration Mechanism 2Inspiration Movements 2Breathing mechanism Expiration 2Expiration Mechanism 2Breathing mechanism Breathing rates Factors: frequency of")
83. Study this source detail: al breathing -predominate in normal condition - vissible abdominal contraction - protrude during inspiration and recoil during expiration intercostal breathing - characterized by pronounced rib movements - painful (Source: "al breathing -predominate in normal condition - vissible abdominal contraction - protrude during inspiration and recoil during expiration intercostal breathing - characterized by pronounced rib movements - painful")
84. Study this source detail: etic stimulation β 2 receptors relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle (bronchodilatation) treatment of asthma 2Breathing mechanism Evaluation: spirometry 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes and lung capacity 2Breathing (Source: "etic stimulation β 2 receptors relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle (bronchodilatation) treatment of asthma 2Breathing mechanism Evaluation: spirometry 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes and lung capacity 2Breathing")
85. Study this source detail: ng. blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the (Source: "ng. blood supply to airways and large vessels and aids in conditioning inhaled air 2Pulmonary circulation thin-walled alveolar capillaries perfuse the alveolar septa interstitium is much thicker on one side of the")
86. Study this source detail: ygen Mass balance and blood flow Mass balance arterial O2 transport − QO2 = venous O2 transport ⇓ QO2 = arterial O2 transport − venous O2 transport Mass flow O2 transport = Cardiac Ourput CO (L blood/min) ∗ O2 (Source: "ygen Mass balance and blood flow Mass balance arterial O2 transport − QO2 = venous O2 transport ⇓ QO2 = arterial O2 transport − venous O2 transport Mass flow O2 transport = Cardiac Ourput CO (L blood/min) ∗ O2")
87. Study this source detail: DRG = Dorsal respiratory group VRG = Ventral respiratory group; (Source: "DRG = Dorsal respiratory group VRG = Ventral respiratory group;")
88. Study this source detail: tus solitarius 2Breathing control Glomus cell 2Breathing control Chemoreceptor 2Breathing control Breathing control 2Breathing control Birds no diaphragm nor phrenic nerve assumed a central respiratory control center (Source: "tus solitarius 2Breathing control Glomus cell 2Breathing control Chemoreceptor 2Breathing control Breathing control 2Breathing control Birds no diaphragm nor phrenic nerve assumed a central respiratory control center")
89. Study this source detail: Journal of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460. (Source: "Journal of applied physiology, 22(3), 453-460.")
90. Study this source detail: The American journal of physiology, 150(1), 70-77. (Source: "The American journal of physiology, 150(1), 70-77.")
91. Study this source detail: spiratory functions of the lungs Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasOverview 2The respiratory system Overview exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood (O2 intake / CO2 expel) homeostatic (Source: "spiratory functions of the lungs Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasOverview 2The respiratory system Overview exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood (O2 intake / CO2 expel) homeostatic")
92. Study this source detail: environment and the body’s cells Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation). (Source: "environment and the body’s cells Bachelor’s Degree in Veterinary Physiology I Fernando CánovasExternal respiration (ventilation).")
93. Study this source detail: hing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). (Source: "hing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947).")
94. Study this source detail: ratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Anatomical differences 2Breathing mechanism (Source: "ratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus The alveoli 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Respiratory epithelium 2Structure of respiratory apparatus Anatomical differences 2Breathing mechanism")
95. Study this source detail: 453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947). (Source: "453 2Breathing mechanism Lung volumes comparison Guyton (1947).")
96. Study this source detail: tween quadrupeds and bipeds neural and humoral factors cause contraction of pulmonary artery smooth muscle alveolar hypoxia is a potent constrictor of small pulmonary arteries accommodates a large increase in blood (Source: "tween quadrupeds and bipeds neural and humoral factors cause contraction of pulmonary artery smooth muscle alveolar hypoxia is a potent constrictor of small pulmonary arteries accommodates a large increase in blood")

📅 Key Dates

Date	Event
1967	Study on lung volumes comparison
1947	Lung volumes comparison by Guyton
2017	Recent research on respiratory anatomy

📊 Synthesis Tables

Comparison of Respiratory Structures in Mammals and Birds

Feature	Mammalian	Bird
Lung structure	Alveoli with alveolar sacs	Air sacs with crosscurrent blood flow
Ventilation mechanism	Tidal breathing with diaphragm	Unidirectional flow with air sacs

Airway Resistance and Gas Exchange Parameters

Parameter	Value/Description
Anatomic dead space	Approximately 150 mL in mammals
Airway resistance	R = △P/△V

⚠️ Common Pitfalls & Confusions

1. Confusing the roles of respiratory epithelium in defense versus conditioning inspired air
2. Assuming uniform lung volumes across different mammalian species
3. Overlooking the influence of neural control on bronchial smooth muscle tone
4. Misinterpreting the effects of alveolar hypoxia on pulmonary circulation
5. Ignoring the differences in gas exchange mechanisms between fish gills and mammalian alveoli
6. Confusing hemoglobin affinity modulation with oxygen transport capacity
7. Underestimating the importance of nonrespiratory lung functions such as defense

✅ Exam Checklist

1. Describe the main functions of the respiratory system
2. Identify components of the mammalian respiratory apparatus
3. Explain the mechanics of mammalian breathing including pressure and volume changes
4. Compare respiratory anatomy between mammals and birds
5. Discuss pulmonary and bronchial circulation and their regulation
6. Outline the process of gas exchange and oxygen transport in blood
7. Describe neural and chemical control mechanisms of breathing
8. Explain the role of hemoglobin and factors affecting its oxygen affinity
9. Summarize carbon dioxide transport and diffusion in blood
10. Identify nonrespiratory functions of the lungs
11. Understand the differences in ventilation mechanisms in different species
12. Recognize the impact of alveolar hypoxia on pulmonary blood flow