Revision sheet: Les enjeux de la connectivité mondiale

📋 Plan du Cours

1. Factors explaining the growing importance of Arctic shipping
2. Interpreting network diagrams: node size, line thickness, and arrow direction
3. Connectivity in economic networks: cores and marginalisation
4. Economic inequalities within ASEAN and investor perspectives
5. Britain's advantages and limitations outside the EU
6. Britain's influence amid emerging global powers
7. Digital services versus manufacturing in integrating marginalised regions
8. Risks of creating enclaves in development planning
9. Role of international institutions in economic integration
10. Transport, infrastructure, and long-term inequality reduction
11. Political risks of incomplete cohesion: the German case
12. EU strategic autonomy and challenges in defence cooperation

📖 1. Factors explaining the growing importance of Arctic shipping

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• EEZs : Maritime zones established by international law granting coastal states rights to explore and use marine resources within 200 nautical miles from their shorelines, often leading to disputes when claims overlap.
• Russia : World’s largest icebreaker fleet.
• Northwest Passage : Potential route between Asia and North America, through Canadian waters.
• Introduction : The opening section that outlines how climate change is reducing Arctic ice cover, enabling new shipping routes with significant geopolitical and environmental implications.
• Arctic shipping routes : New maritime paths (e.g.

📝 Points essentiels

• Arctic routes offer economic potential by shortening distances but pose environmental and geopolitical risks due to fragile ecosystems and sovereignty disputes.
• Governance challenges arise from overlapping EEZ claims and the need for cooperation among Arctic Council members to manage shipping safely and sustainably.
•  I can evaluate how environmental risks and fragile ecosystems shape debates on Arctic shipping.

💡 À retenir

Arctic routes offer economic potential by shortening distances but pose environmental and geopolitical risks due to fragile ecosystems and sovereignty disputes.

📖 2. Interpreting network diagrams: node size, line thickness, and arrow direction

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Global : A scale referring to the entire planet and its interconnected systems, especially in the context of worldwide networks and flows.
• Strength : A measure of the significance or influence of a node within a network, often quantified by the volume of flows or level of activity associated with that location.
• Node size : Node size indicates economic importance or value-added.

📝 Points essentiels

• Node size represents the strength or importance of a location within a network, such as port throughput or economic activity.
• Line thickness indicates the volume or intensity of flows between nodes, such as shipping traffic or trade volume.
• Arrow direction shows the directionality of flows, highlighting source and destination relationships in economic or transport networks.
• Area 1 — Core Content and Application Maritimisation: The Ocean at the Heart of Globalisation The modern global economy depends on the seas. Maritimisation — the increasing reliance of economies on maritime spaces for trade, resources, and communication — is a defining feature of globalisation. Over 90% of world trade by volume travels by sea, linking producers and consumers across continents. Without shipping routes, ports, and submarine cables, the global economy could not function. Seas are not just highways for goods: they are also the hidden infrastructure for data. Submarine cables carry over 95% of international communications traffic, making the ocean floor critical to the digital economy. ܚܛܜ Map skills model Example DBQ-style comment on a global shipping route density map: ࿨࿩࿪ Strength: Highlights major trade flows and chokepoints (e.g. Suez, Malacca). ᤶᤷ Limitation: No data on volumes, ship types, or port capacities — you must link to own knowledge (e.g. importance of Suez for Europe-Asia trade). Containerisation and the Revolution in Global Trade Containerisation, introduced in the mid-20th century, transformed shipping. Standard containers allow goods to be loaded and moved between ships, trains, and lorries without unpacking. This slashes costs, speeds up trade, and supports global value chains (GVCs). For example, smartphone parts may be made in South Korea and
• Theme 2 Exam Practice: Territorial Dynamics in a Globalised World ᦋᦌᦍᦎᦏᦐᦑᦒ Map & Diagram Skills Practice: Interpreting Unequal Integration and Global Governance៏័៑្ Document A — IMF Lending in Asia (Choropleth Map) This shaded map shows the use of IMF credit (in US$) across Asian countries in 2022. Stronger shades indicate higher borrowing, spotlighting which countries were most financially vulnerable or reliant on international assistance. ܚܛܜ This document highlights uneven access to global financial governance and spatial disparities in economic resilience. ⎏⎐⎑⎒ Analytical Tip: Link high IMF borrowing to limited financial integration or crisis vulnerability. Reflect on Section 3’s content on conditionalities and governance influence. 94៏័៑្ Document B — Global Value Chain Integration Diagram This schematic illustrates flows of goods and services among continents, showing how countries are embedded in global production networks. Flow lines vary in width to indicate volume and function (e.g. raw materials, components, design). ܚܛܜ This document helps visualise integration strength, identify core and peripheral nodes, and evaluate connectivity in GVCs. ⎏⎐⎑⎒ Analytical Tip: Apply the core-periphery model from

💡 À retenir

Node size represents the strength or importance of a location within a network, such as port throughput or economic activity.

📖 3. Connectivity in economic networks: cores and marginalisation

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• London : A major global city acting as a key node in international financial and business service networks, connected to other global centres through flows of capital, legal services, and data.
• Limitation : No data on volumes, ship types, or port capacities — you must link to own knowledge (e.g.
• Analytical Tip : Link high IMF borrowing to limited financial integration or crisis vulnerability.

📝 Points essentiels

• Core regions are highly connected nodes with strong economic flows and influence, while peripheral areas experience marginalisation due to weak links.
• Global Value Chains illustrate how production is fragmented globally, often reinforcing core dominance and peripheral exclusion.
• Marginalisation results from limited infrastructure, governance, or institutional support, restricting integration into global networks.

💡 À retenir

Economic connectivity shapes spatial inequalities by reinforcing the dominance of core regions and the marginalisation of peripheral areas through uneven integration into global networks.

📖 4. Economic inequalities within ASEAN and investor perspectives

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Special economic : A category of designated areas that provide regulatory or fiscal incentives aimed at attracting investment to stimulate economic activity.

📝 Points essentiels

• ASEAN exhibits uneven economic development, with disparities between member states affecting integration outcomes.
• Investor perspectives are influenced by political stability, infrastructure quality, and market size within ASEAN countries.
• Economic inequalities impact FDI distribution, often concentrating investment in more developed or stable ASEAN members.

💡 À retenir

Investor decisions shaped by political and infrastructural factors, combined with economic disparities among ASEAN members, contribute to the region’s uneven integration and development.

📖 5. Britain's advantages and limitations outside the EU

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Conclusion : Map is useful for visualising opportunity but incomplete without risk and legal context.
• Mini Self-Check List : Liste de vérification permettant d'évaluer la compréhension des avantages et des limites de la position de la Grande-Bretagne hors de l'Union européenne, notamment en matière de politique commerciale et d'influence internationale.
• Strengths :  Market scale, trade deals, regulatory reach (GDPR, Green Deal) ✔ Limits:  No army, weak common foreign policy  Internal divisions weaken external voice ✔ France = ambition;

📝 Points essentiels

• Britain gains autonomy in trade policy, enabling bespoke agreements beyond EU constraints.
• Limitations include reduced access to the EU single market and regulatory divergence challenges.
• Britain’s global influence is constrained by loss of EU institutional support and economic scale.

💡 À retenir

La position post-UE de la Grande-Bretagne offre une liberté en politique commerciale, mais elle doit composer avec des défis majeurs liés à l'accès au marché unique européen et à une influence mondiale réduite.

📖 6. Britain's influence amid emerging global powers

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Global Governance & Emerging Powers : A system of international institutions and rules that regulate the global economy, where emerging powers like China, India, and Brazil increasingly challenge the traditional Western-led order by demanding greater representation and reform.

📝 Points essentiels

• Britain leverages soft power and historical ties to maintain influence despite relative decline.
• Strategic alliances and multilateral engagement are crucial for Britain to navigate a multipolar world.

💡 À retenir

Britain’s global influence depends on adapting to power shifts through diplomacy and alliances.

📖 7. Digital services versus manufacturing in integrating marginalised regions

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Marginalised regions : Sub-national areas that experience social and economic exclusion due to geographic disadvantages, inadequate infrastructure, and limiting policy environments, resulting in reduced participation in global trade and economic networks.

📝 Points essentiels

• Digital services offer new pathways for marginalised regions to connect globally without heavy infrastructure.
• Manufacturing integration requires substantial transport and physical infrastructure, often lacking in marginalised areas.
• Digital integration can complement but not fully replace manufacturing’s role in regional economic development.
• Area 1 — Core Content and Application Divided Networks: Regional Gaps in Global Trade The global economy does not integrate all regions equally. At the heart of the system are core regions—urban areas with strong infrastructure, skilled labour, and dense networks of firms—where the most profitable economic activities take place. By contrast, peripheral regions often perform lower-value tasks or are excluded from trade networks altogether. This spatial inequality is well explained by the core-periphery model, a long-standing but still useful tool for geographers. Core regions benefit from agglomeration economies, where proximity between firms, institutions and transport hubs boosts efficiency and innovation. These areas typically host the headquarters of transnational corporations (TNCs), as well as the research, design and management stages of production. In peripheral regions, limited access to infrastructure, capital or education tends to lock local economies into less competitive roles, such as basic manufacturing, resource extraction, or subsistence agriculture. This imbalance creates what some scholars call the “geography of winners and losers” in globalisation. Today’s economic geography is structured by Global Value Chains (GVCs)— networks that divide production into specialised tasks carried out across different regions and countries. For example, a mobile phone might

💡 À retenir

Digital services provide alternative integration routes for marginalised regions, differing fundamentally from manufacturing’s infrastructure demands.

📖 8. Risks of creating enclaves in development planning

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Broader development policy : Institutional frameworks and coordinated strategies that align various development initiatives to promote territorial cohesion and reduce inequalities.
• Trade blocs : Groupings of countries that reduce barriers to intra-bloc trade to facilitate regional economic integration and influence territorial cohesion.

📝 Points essentiels

• Enclave development creates isolated zones of prosperity disconnected from surrounding areas.
• Such enclaves can exacerbate spatial inequalities by limiting spillover benefits.
• Development planning must consider integration to avoid reinforcing marginalisation through enclaves.

💡 À retenir

Enclave development creates isolated zones of prosperity disconnected from surrounding areas.

📖 9. Role of international institutions in economic integration

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Regional : Relatif à des zones géographiques regroupant plusieurs pays qui coopèrent pour faciliter les échanges économiques et la création de blocs commerciaux.
• Limits : Rarely show military deployments, actual incidents, or enforcement realities.
• Local : Se rapportant aux territoires ou communautés spécifiques où les politiques et infrastructures influencent directement le développement économique et l'intégration.

📝 Points essentiels

• International institutions set rules and frameworks facilitating global economic integration.
• IMF influences financial stability and policy conditionality affecting integration patterns.
• WTO governs trade rules, resolves disputes, and promotes liberalisation critical for integration.
• Area 3 — Core Content and Application Global Governance & Emerging Powers The modern global economy is held together by more than markets. Behind trade flows, investment patterns and development finance lies a system of global economic governance — the institutions, rules and power dynamics that regulate cross-border activity. This governance architecture emerged after World War II, built largely by Western powers to promote economic stability and liberal trade. But as power shifts toward emerging economies, questions about legitimacy, inclusiveness and effectiveness are increasingly reshaping how global governance functions. តថទធនប The Big Three: WTO, IMF and World Bank ௲௳௴ World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Manages global trade rules and resolves disputes
• Promotes tariff reduction and “free but fair” trade
• Operates on a one-country, one-vote system — but real influence lies with major trading powers ݚݛݜݝ Case in point: WTO negotiations often stall due to divisions between developed and developing countries, such as on agricultural subsidies or digital services.ۜ ۞۟ International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• Provides emergency lending to countries in financial crisis
• Imposes “conditionalities” (austerity, reforms) in exchange for support
• Voting power based on economic size — giving Western countries more influence ݚݛݜݝ Example: The 1997 Asian financial crisis saw IMF bailouts

💡 À retenir

International institutions set rules and frameworks facilitating global economic integration.

📖 10. Transport, infrastructure, and long-term inequality reduction

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Linked concepts : Sustainable development, environmental justice, spatial planning ⦏⦐⦑⦒⦓⦔⦕⦖⦗⦘⦙ Governance and Planning  A local urban development plan (PLU) and its consequences  Who decides what gets built?

📝 Points essentiels

• Investment in transport infrastructure enhances connectivity, enabling peripheral regions to access markets.
• Improved infrastructure reduces long-term spatial inequalities by integrating marginalised areas.
• Sustained infrastructure development is essential for balanced regional economic growth.
• Disparities and the Long Road to Territorial Cohesion តថទធនប Context Germany is often seen as the EU’s economic powerhouse — yet it remains internally divided. After reunification in 1990, the former East German Länder faced structural weaknesses: ageing infrastructure, a collapsed industrial base, and severe unemployment. Bridging the east–west gap has become a long-term project involving both national solidarity mechanisms and EU cohesion policy. Though Germany is classified as a “more developed” member state overall, its eastern regions have been consistent recipients of EU structural funds, especially from the ERDF and ESF+. ݓݔݕݖݗݘ Key Facts  GDP per capita in eastern Germany rose from ~67% (1991) to ~80% (2020) of the western average  Over EUR20 billion in EU cohesion funds allocated to Germany (2014–2020), mostly for eastern regions  Funding focused on: o Transport infrastructure (e.g. Berlin–Dresden rail, Leipzig-Halle upgrades) o Urban regeneration (e.g. Chemnitz, Erfurt) o Vocational training and youth employment via ESF+ ᦋᦌᦍᦎᦏᦐᦑᦒ Spatial Outcomes Despite significant investment, regional gaps remain: Region Indicator Remaining Challenges Saxony, Thuringia Improved infrastructure, renewed cities Lower innovation capacity Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Tourism growth, port development Outmigration, ageing population Brandenburg Proximity to Berlin stimulates growth Uneven

💡 À retenir

Transport infrastructure is a foundational tool for reducing spatial inequalities and fostering inclusive development.

📖 11. Political risks of incomplete cohesion: the German case

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Prompt : Instruction or question designed to guide analysis or reflection on a specific topic, such as political cohesion and its risks in the German context.
• Political fragmentation : A condition characterized by divisions and disagreements within a political system that hinder unified decision-making and weaken national and supranational integration efforts.
• Cohesion policy : A set of strategies and financial instruments implemented by the European Union aimed at reducing regional disparities and promoting balanced territorial development.
• Territorial cohesion : An objective of the European Union focused on achieving balanced economic and social development across its regions to ensure long-term stability and integration.

📝 Points essentiels

• Incomplete political cohesion can lead to regional disparities and social tensions within Germany.
• Federal structures complicate uniform policy implementation, affecting cohesion outcomes.
• Political fragmentation risks undermining national and EU-level integration efforts.
• Comprising 27 member states with highly diverse economies, geographies, and political systems, the EU represents both the ambitions and the contradictions of globalisation. While it offers a unified Single Market, a shared currency for many members, and common environmental and social goals, it also struggles with internal disparities, uneven development, and policy disagreements. This theme explores the supranational structures and territorial cohesion policies that underpin the EU’s mission. Students will evaluate how EU programmes attempt to reduce regional inequality and promote sustainable development, while also considering the limits of integration — from the lack of a common military and foreign policy to diverging national interests in migration or rule-of-law issues. The EU’s role in global trade and diplomacy will be examined, alongside its internal crises and contestations. A critical perspective is essential: students are expected to explore how the EU both favours and hinders global integration, and why it is often considered an emerging power — influential, yet incomplete. Through a combination of case studies, including Germany and France, and brief comparisons across member states, students will come to understand the EU’s role as both a model and a mirror of the contradictions inherent in globalisation. Key Questions & Concepts KEY QUESTIONS KEY CONCEPTS &

💡 À retenir

Political fragmentation risks undermining national and EU-level integration efforts.

📖 12. EU strategic autonomy and challenges in defence cooperation

🔑 Notions clés & Définitions

• Guidance : Recommendations provided to help structure analysis and argumentation on EU defence cooperation and strategic autonomy.
• Structure clearly : 2–3 strong arguments, each with an example  Use transitions: “On the other hand…”, “This is offset by…”, “However…”  Bring in the case study: France’s push for strategic autonomy  End with a balanced conclusion: power is present, but conditional 128 ࿨࿩࿪ Min
• Internal fragmentation :  Evaluated how internal fragmentation (e.g.
• Poland/Hungary : Poland/Hungary = limits to legitimacy
• End with a judgement: partial or emerging power?

📝 Points essentiels

• EU strategic autonomy seeks to develop independent defence capabilities to reduce reliance on NATO.
• Divergent interests among member states, especially between Western and Eastern countries, challenge defence integration.
• Internal fragmentation, including political and rule-of-law disputes, weakens the EU's ability to act cohesively in defence matters.
• Theme 3 Summary: The EU in a Globalised World ൚൛൜൝൞ൟൠൡൢൣ Theme Summary — What Have You Learned? In this theme, you explored how the European Union — as the world’s most integrated regional bloc — both drives and reflects globalisation. You examined how the EU promotes cohesion, exercises power, and confronts internal fragmentation. You studied:  How the EU uses policies like CAP, ERDF, and Digital Europe to reduce territorial inequality  How integration varies spatially across regions and states (e.g. Germany, France, Romania)  The EU’s role as a regulatory and economic power, and its limits in foreign policy and defence  How internal tensions — over values, migration, or sovereignty — challenge the EU’s cohesion  Case studies that reveal the Union’s strengths (e.g. Germany’s convergence) and vulnerabilities (e.g. Poland and Hungary’s legal contestation)  How the EU attempts to act globally while managing diverging national interests at home Throughout this theme, you developed your ability to interpret policy documents, explain territorial and institutional complexity, and argue across multiple scales — from local cohesion projects to supranational governance. ࿨࿩࿪ Final Self-Check — Can You Do the Following? Have you…  Explained how EU policies promote territorial and economic cohesion?  Used spatial case studies (e.g. Germany, France, Poland) to evaluate uneven
• ⦏⦐⦑⦒⦓⦔⦕⦖⦗⦘⦙ Conclusion The EU clearly plays a role in global governance — but that role is constrained by internal fragmentation and strategic ambiguity.

💡 À retenir

Internal divisions and limited defence cooperation among EU member states hinder the achievement of EU strategic autonomy.

📅 Repères chronologiques

Date	Événement
2022	Climate change reducing Arctic ice
1997	EU policies promoting cohesion
1990	Formation of ASEAN
1991	End of Cold War
2020	Global shifts in power
2014	Annexation of Crimea

📊 Tableaux de Synthèse

Arctic Shipping Routes and Geopolitical Risks

Route	Economic Potential	Risks
Northwest Passage	Shorter distances	Sovereignty disputes
Russian Arctic Routes	Resource access	Environmental risks

Global Network Connectivity: Core vs Peripheral

Region	Node Size	Connectivity
London	High	Financial hub
Peripheral Areas	Low	Marginalised

⚠️ Pièges & Confusions Fréquentes

1. Confusing node size with volume of flows without data
2. Misinterpreting arrow direction as influence without context
3. Overgeneralising core-periphery dichotomy
4. Ignoring environmental and geopolitical risks in Arctic routes
5. Assuming digital services fully replace manufacturing in marginalised regions
6. Confusing international institutions' influence with enforcement capabilities
7. Overlooking internal fragmentation within the EU

✅ Checklist Examen

1. Understand the significance of EEZs in Arctic disputes
2. Interpret network diagrams focusing on node size and line thickness
3. Differentiate core and marginal regions in economic networks
4. Assess economic disparities within ASEAN and their impact on FDI
5. Evaluate Britain's global influence and strategic challenges
6. Compare digital and manufacturing pathways for marginalised regions
7. Identify risks of enclave development in regional planning
8. Explain the role of international institutions in economic integration
9. Analyze how transport infrastructure affects inequality reduction
10. Discuss internal cohesion challenges within the EU