What does a relative statement depend on?
The context of utterance.
Give an example of a relative statement's context dependence.
The date indicated by “today.”
What does an absolute statement not depend on?
The context of utterance.
Give an example of an absolute statement.
“Thursday 10 September 2026.”
What is reason?
Reason is our capacity to reason.
What does being rational mean?
Being rational means acting according to logical reasons rather than feelings.
What does being rational show besides acting logically?
Being rational shows moderation.
What are the two meanings of a reason?
A reason can be a cause or an end that justifies behavior.
What is a demonstration?
A demonstration is a valid reasoning process where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
What does Euclid’s Property 32 state about triangle angles?
The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
What does a demonstration produce regarding its result's scope?
A universal result valid everywhere.
What kind of result does a demonstration produce that compels agreement?
A necessary result forcing agreement from those accepting the premises.
Why can't all premises be demonstrated in reasoning?
Because reasoning eventually reaches fundamental principles or axioms.
What is notable about the explorer's journey involving 500 km south, east, then north?
The explorer returns to the starting point accompanied by a white bear.
Why can several incompatible logical systems exist?
Because they may use different premises.
What makes validity too strong a condition for most ordinary reasoning?
It excludes many forms of reasoning by requiring strict correctness.
Why does reason tend to rationalize prejudices?
Because of confirmation bias.
What does confirmation bias cause reason to do with facts?
It distorts facts to support an initial intuition.
What does the Dreyfus affair example illustrate about reasoning?
Distortion of facts to fit an intuition.
What influences people's behavior besides their conscious purposes?
A set of unknown causes.
According to Spinoza in Ethics, why do people believe themselves free?
Because they are conscious of desires but ignorant of determining causes.
Which author wrote that people believe themselves free due to ignorance of causes?
Spinoza.
How does the foot-in-the-door technique work?
It starts with a small request before a larger one.
Who argue that reason is more effective in dialogue than solitary reflection?
Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber.
What is the main goal of a debate?
To defeat an opposing point of view.
What is the main goal of a discussion?
To reach agreement and understand the other person's point of view.
How are debate positions organized?
As antagonistic, for or against.
Can discussion positions change during the conversation?
Yes, discussion positions can change.
What risk does debate carry regarding polarization?
A high risk of polarization.
What risk does debate carry regarding creating an artificial social environment?
A high risk of creating an artificial social environment.
How does discussion compare to debate in risk of polarization and artificial social environment?
Discussion carries a low risk of both polarization and artificial social environment.
What distinguishes a truth of reason from a truth of fact?
A truth of reason is distinct from a truth of fact.
Which sciences are distinct from empirical sciences based on experiments?
Formal sciences like mathematics, computer science, and logic are distinct.
What is a hypothesis in empirical science?
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
What does a hypothesis always imply?
It always implies consequences that can be tested.
How does the empirical method test a hypothesis?
By varying a factor and observing changes in the number of sick people.
What determines whether a hypothesis is kept or replaced in the empirical method?
The result of observing if the number of sick people decreases.
What defines a correlation between two variables?
Their values vary according to the same pattern.
What is causality in terms of cause and effect timing?
A cause produces an effect and is anterior or simultaneous to it.
Test your knowledge with 18 questions on Reason and Empirical Science.
1. Why does the meaning of “today” vary between two utterances made on different dates?
2. Which statement is absolute because its truth does not depend on when it is uttered?
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