Study sheet: Understanding Communication Skills

📋 Course Outline

1. Communication Meaning and Characteristics
2. The Communication Process
3. Verbal Communication
4. Non-Verbal Communication
5. Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication
6. Formal and Informal Communication
7. Direction of Communication
8. Barriers to Effective Communication
9. Tuckman’s Group Development Model
10. Characteristics of Effective Teams

📖 1. Communication Meaning and Characteristics

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Communication : the process through which people exchange information, ideas, thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and meanings with one another

★ Must-know

• Communication is important in psychology because human behaviour is influenced by how people express thoughts, interpret behaviour, understand emotions, develop relationships, resolve conflicts, seek help, and give or receive feedback.

📌 Communication is generally a two-way process involving a sender and a receiver, whereas communication is not merely the one-way transmission of words because it also requires creating meaning.

Further detail

• The word communication is derived from the Latin word communicare, meaning “to share” or “to make common.”

• Communication is characterised by: at least two parties, a message, changing meanings shaped by context, situation, and culture, creating meaning

💡 Memory Hook

S-M-D-M: sharing, message, dynamic meaning

📖 2. The Communication Process

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Encoding : the process of converting the sender's thoughts, ideas, feelings, or intentions into communicable symbols such as words, gestures, facial expressions, images, or sounds
• Channel : A channel is the medium or route through which a message travels from the sender to the receiver, such as conversation, telephone, letters, emails, messages, video calls, notices, television, radio, or digital media.
• Decoding : the process through which the receiver interprets the message and gives meaning to it
• Feedback : Feedback is the receiver's verbal, written, or non-verbal response after receiving and interpreting a message, indicating whether it was understood, misunderstood, accepted, rejected, or needs clarification.

📝 Essential Points

• The communication process converts a thought, idea, feeling, or information into a message that is transmitted, interpreted, and answered through feedback.

💡 Memory Hook

Sender → Encoding → Message → Channel → Receiver → Decoding → Feedback

📖 3. Verbal Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Verbal Communication : uses words and language to exchange information, thoughts, ideas, feelings, opinions, or instructions through speaking or writing

📝 Essential Points

• Verbal communication can express ideas clearly, provide immediate feedback in oral interaction, explain complex information, support interaction, and help build relationships, but it can be limited by language barriers, emotional influence, and poor communication skills.

📌 Written communication uses text and is particularly useful for formal, detailed, and official information, whereas oral communication uses spoken words and usually allows quicker exchange and immediate feedback.

💡 Memory Hook

Oral is immediate; written is documented

📖 4. Non-Verbal Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Non-Verbal Communication : Non-verbal communication communicates information, thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and reactions without spoken or written words as the primary means, using facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye contact, body movements, physical distance, appearance, tone, and pitch.
• Facial Expressions : movements and changes in the face that communicate emotions, feelings, attitudes, and reactions without words
• Gestures : movements of the hands, arms, head, or other body parts that communicate information, feelings, attitudes, or intentions
• Posture : Posture is the way a person holds or positions the body while standing, sitting, or interacting, providing clues about attention, comfort, attitude, or emotional state without reliably revealing exactly what the person feels.

📝 Essential Points

• Non-verbal communication can express emotions, support verbal messages, provide emotional cues, and help psychologists understand clients when cues are interpreted in context.

💡 Memory Hook

A face, hands, posture, and voice silently communicating emotion

📖 5. Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Interpersonal Communication : the exchange of information, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and emotions between two or more people who interact directly
• Intrapersonal Communication : communication with oneself through thoughts, feelings, self-talk, reflection, decision-making, and internal dialogue

📝 Essential Points

• Effective interpersonal communication involves:

  • active listening
  • clear expression
  • empathy
  • appropriate feedback
  • understanding verbal and non-verbal cues

• Intrapersonal communication helps individuals understand experiences, evaluate situations, solve problems, make decisions, regulate emotions and behaviour, and promote self-awareness.

💡 Memory Hook

Interpersonal connects people; intrapersonal is inner dialogue

📖 6. Formal and Informal Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Formal Communication : exchanges information through officially established channels, rules, procedures, and organisational structures, usually following hierarchy
• Informal Communication : exchanges information, ideas, feelings, opinions, and messages through unofficial, casual, flexible, and spontaneous channels without necessarily following organisational hierarchy

★ Must-know

📌 Formal communication provides structure, documentation, reduced ambiguity, systematic communication of important information, and professionalism, whereas it may be slow, inflexible, delayed in feedback, and bureaucratic.

Further detail

• Informal communication is fast, flexible, relationship-building, and open, but it may produce rumours, distorted or inaccurate information, misunderstanding, and a lack of documentation.

💡 Memory Hook

Formal follows hierarchy; informal follows relationships

📖 7. Direction of Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Horizontal Communication : also called lateral communication, exchanges information between individuals or departments at the same or similar level of authority for coordination, cooperation, problem-solving, and task completion
• Diagonal Communication : flows between individuals at different levels and in different departments without necessarily following the normal chain of command

📝 Essential Points

📌 Upward communication flows from lower organisational levels to higher authorities and conveys feedback, suggestions, problems, concerns, reports, requests, and opinions.

📌 Downward communication flows from higher authority to lower organisational levels and conveys instructions, policies, rules, decisions, responsibilities, procedures, and organisational goals.

💡 Memory Hook

Upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal

📖 8. Barriers to Effective Communication

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Information Overload : occurs when a person receives more information than they can effectively process or understand at a given time, causing important information to be overlooked

★ Must-know

• Physical barriers include:

  • noise
  • poor lighting
  • long physical distance
  • overcrowding
  • interruptions
  • uncomfortable surroundings
  • technical problems

• Psychological barriers may involve:

  • anxiety
  • anger
  • fear
  • stress
  • sadness
  • insecurity
  • lack of confidence

• Semantic barriers occur when the sender and receiver assign different meanings to words, expressions, or symbols because of difficult vocabulary, jargon, ambiguity, poor translation, or language differences.

• Perceptual barriers occur when people interpret the same message differently because of past experiences, beliefs, expectations, attitudes, or personal perspectives.

Further detail

• Cultural barriers arise from differences in language, values, beliefs, norms, communication styles, gestures, and expectations between cultural backgrounds.

• Physiological barriers include:

  • hearing difficulties
  • speech difficulties
  • visual difficulties
  • illness
  • fatigue
  • other physical limitations

• Organisational barriers result from too many hierarchical levels, unclear roles, rigid procedures, inadequate communication channels, and poor coordination between departments.

💡 Memory Hook

PP-SCPOI: physical, psychological, semantic, cultural, physiological, perceptual, organisational, information overload

📖 9. Tuckman’s Group Development Model

🔑 Key Concepts & Definitions

• Forming : the initial group stage in which members get to know one another, cautiously understand the purpose and roles, depend on the leader, and generally avoid disagreement
• Storming : the stage in which disagreements and conflicts emerge over roles, responsibilities, leadership, methods, and decision-making
• Norming : the stage when members resolve disagreements and establish shared norms, rules, roles, and expectations, increasing cooperation and positive relationships

📝 Essential Points

• 🔄 Tuckman’s group development model proceeds through:
  1. Forming
  2. Storming
  3. Norming
  4. Performing
  5. Adjourning

📌 Performing is the stage in which a group is organised, cooperative, independent, and focused on achieving its goals, whereas adjourning occurs when the task is complete and the group prepares to separate.

💡 Memory Hook

Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning

📖 10. Characteristics of Effective Teams

★ Must-know

• Effective teams have clearly defined goals understood by all members, with each member knowing how their contribution supports the overall objective.

• Effective teams define members' roles, duties, and responsibilities to prevent duplication of work and confusion about task ownership.

• Effective teams maintain open, clear, and respectful communication in which members share information, listen, ask questions, and provide feedback.

• Trust allows team members to depend on one another and share ideas, concerns, and mistakes without unnecessary fear of criticism or humiliation.

• Effective teams cooperate by sharing resources, helping one another, and coordinating efforts toward a common goal while respecting members' ideas, abilities, experiences, and perspectives.

Further detail

• Appropriate leadership helps an effective team establish goals, coordinate activities, resolve difficulties, motivate members, and maintain focus.

📊 Synthesis Tables

Communication Types by Basis

Basis	Types	Main distinction
Mode	Verbal / Non-verbal	Words and language versus behavioural and vocal cues
Participants	Interpersonal / Intrapersonal	Interaction between people versus communication with oneself
Formality	Formal / Informal	Official channels and hierarchy versus casual unofficial channels
Direction	Upward / Downward / Horizontal / Diagonal	Flow between authority levels and departments